Beyond Feelings

62 PART ONE The Context
require reasonable people to violate it. Have you ever heard anyone claim
that burglary, spousal abuse, or rape is morally acceptable for those who
believe it is? When someone is convicted of child molesting, do citizens
parade in front of the courthouse with banners proclaiming “Pedophilia
may be wrong for us, but it was right for him”? If your instructor discovers
you cheating on an examination, will she accept your explanation that
you believe the end justifies the means? If a Breathalyzer test reveals that
your classmate was driving with a blood alcohol level higher than his
grade point average, will the police officer commend him for living by his
moral conviction?
Virtually every professional organization and every corporation has
a code of ethics that specifies the behaviors that are required or forbidden.
Every country has a body of laws with prescribed penalties for violators.
There are even international laws that govern affairs among countries. All
these codes and legal systems don’t appear out of thin air. They are the
products of moral judgment, the same mental activity individuals use in
deciding everyday issues of right and wrong. And they are subject to the
same limitations and imperfections. Opinions about moral issues, like
other opinions, may be correct or incorrect.
Are there criteria we can use to increase the chance that our moral
judgments will be correct? Definitely. The most important criteria are
obligations, ideals, and consequences.*
• Obligations: Obligations are restrictions on behavior, demands that
we do or avoid doing something. The most obvious kinds of obligations
are formal agreements such as contracts. Others include professional
and business obligations, and obligations of friendship and
citizenship. When two or more obligations conflict, the most important
one should take precedence.
• Ideals: In the general sense, ideals are notions of excellence, goals that
bring greater harmony within ourselves and with others. In ethics
they are also specific concepts that help us maintain respect for persons.
Some noteworthy examples of ideals are honesty, integrity,
justice, and fairness. When two or more ideals conflict in a given
situation, the most important one should be given precedence.
• Consequences: Consequences are the beneficial and/or harmful
results of an action that affect both the person performing that action
and other people. Any examination of consequences should consider
the various kinds: personal and societal; physical and emotional;
immediate and eventual; intended and unintended; obvious and
subtle; and possible, probable, and certain. Actions that achieve beneficial
consequences should be preferred over those that do harm.
*Space limitations do not permit more than a brief explanation of moral judgment. For a
fuller discussion, see the companion book by the same author, Thinking Critically About
Ethical Issues (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008).