Beyond Feelings

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CHAPTER 7 What Is Argument? so and consequently are often used to identify conclusions. Where they are not used, you can usually identify the conclusion by answering the question, Which assertion do the other assertions support or reinforce?) The basic principles logicians use in evaluating arguments are as follows: 1. The premises are either true or false (correct or incorrect). 2. The reasoning that links the premises to the conclusion is either valid or invalid. (To be valid, the stated conclusion, and only that conclusion, must follow logically from the premises.) 3. Correct premises plus valid reasoning equal a sound argument. 4. Either an incorrect premise or invalid reasoning will render an argument unsound. Mistakes are as common in logical thinking as they are in mathematics. This is true not only of other people’s thinking but of our own as well. Just as we can have accurate numbers and do our best to add carefully yet come up with the wrong answer, so, too, can we proceed from accurate information to a wrong conclusion. Of course, when we start with inaccurate or incomplete information or reason recklessly, the chances of error are compounded. Here is an interesting (and humorous) example of reckless reasoning: After a worker was fired for being habitually late, his attorney argued that the supervisor was at fault for not demanding that the man wear a watch! 1 Inappropriate attitudes toward ideas and the reasoning process can also lead to errors in argument. For example, if you regard your first impressions as infallible, you are likely to embrace them uncritically, seek out evidence that supports them and reject evidence that challenges them, and defend them rabidly. Such an approach leaves you vulnerable both to self-deception and to manipulation by others. In contrast, if you regard your first impressions tentatively—as interesting possibilities rather than certainties—and compare them to other ideas before making up your mind, you are less likely to fool yourself or be deceived by others. Evaluating Arguments The basic approach to evaluating arguments can be stated simply: Decide whether the premises are true or false and whether the reasoning that leads from them to the conclusion is valid. If both criteria are met, the argument is sound. When the argument is clearly and fully stated and you ask the right questions, this approach is relatively easy to follow. You may, of course, have to do some investigating to determine the truth or falsity of one or both premises. Here are some examples of clear, fully stated, arguments: 85
86 PART ONE The Context The Argument All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. The Questions Are all men mortal? Is Socrates a man? Does this conclusion follow logically from what is stated in the premises? Does any other conclusion follow equally well? Comment: The premises obviously are true. Also, the conclusion offered, and only that conclusion, follows logically. Accordingly, the argument is sound. The Argument Any activity that involves physical exertion is properly classified as a sport. Bodybuilding involves physical exertion. Therefore, bodybuilding is properly classified as a sport. The Questions Are there any physical activities that are not a sport yet are physically strenuous? Does bodybuilding involve physical exertion? Does this conclusion follow logically from what is stated in the premises? Would any other conclusion be as reasonable? Comment: Even though the second premise is true and the conclusion follows logically from the premises, this argument is unsound because the first premise is false. Many physical activities are in no way related to a sport yet are physically strenuous—moving pianos, for example. Note that showing this argument to be unsound does not prove that bodybuilding should not be classified as a sport. Perhaps some other argument could be advanced that would prove to be sound. The Argument Guilty people usually fail lie detector tests. Bruno failed his lie detector test. Therefore, Bruno is guilty. The Questions Is this true? Did he really? Does this conclusion follow logically from what is stated in the premises? Would any other conclusion be as reasonable? Comment: Both the first and the second premises are true. (The authorities could have lied about Bruno’s score, but let’s assume they didn’t.) Still, the premises don’t provide sufficient evidence to draw the conclusion that is given or, for that matter, any other conclusion. We need to know
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Beyond Feelings A Guide to Critical
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To the memory of Howard Trumble, wh
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vi CONTENTS Imperfect Memory 35 Def
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viii CONTENTS Using Your Inventory
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x PRFACE evaluate them carefully wh
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xii PRFACE Aimee Ross-Kilroy, Loyol
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2 INTRODUCTION applications cover p
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CHAPTER 1 Who Are You? Suppose some
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6 PART ONE The Context The Influenc
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8 PART ONE The Context What effects
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10 PART ONE The Context was not to
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12 PART ONE The Context does not su
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14 PART ONE The Context 1. Do a bri
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CHAPTER 2 What Is Critical Thinking
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18 PART ONE The Context that has ch
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20 PART ONE The Context Thought Pro
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22 PART ONE The Context Are interes
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24 PART ONE The Context Basic Activ
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26 PART ONE The Context And when th
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28 PART ONE The Context number of p
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30 PART ONE The Context Application
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CHAPTER 3 What Is Truth? For hundre
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136 PART TWO The Pitfalls A busines
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138 PART TWO The Pitfalls Eventuall
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140 PART TWO The Pitfalls because t
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142 PART TWO The Pitfalls control.
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CHAPTER 13 The Errors in Combinatio
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146 PART TWO The Pitfalls Bias for
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148 PART TWO The Pitfalls Arguing i
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150 PART TWO The Pitfalls Attacking
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152 PART TWO The Pitfalls that mome
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154 PART TWO The Pitfalls with all
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156 PART TWO The Pitfalls Christine
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CHAPTER 14 Knowing Yourself Western
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160 PART THREE A Strategy 12. In wh
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162 PART THREE A Strategy within he
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CHAPTER 15 Being Observant French c
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166 PART THREE A Strategy Sir Alexa
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168 PART THREE A Strategy Becoming
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170 PART THREE A Strategy You canno
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172 PART THREE A Strategy Any feeli
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174 PART THREE A Strategy Sample Is
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176 PART THREE A Strategy Narrowing
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CHAPTER 17 Conducting Inquiry Inqui
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180 PART THREE A Strategy BACKGROUN
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182 PART THREE A Strategy cases, as
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184 PART THREE A Strategy Once you
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186 PART THREE A Strategy opposing
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188 PART THREE A Strategy are harmf
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190 PART THREE A Strategy Managing
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CHAPTER 18 Forming a Judgment Judgm
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194 PART THREE A Strategy Expert op
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196 PART THREE A Strategy Here is a
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198 PART THREE A Strategy As the ex
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200 PART THREE A Strategy 1. Strive
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202 PART THREE A Strategy MAKE YOUR
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204 PART THREE A Strategy and dismi
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CHAPTER 19 Persuading Others When y
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208 PART THREE A Strategy the compa
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210 PART THREE A Strategy 2. Gun co
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212 PART THREE A Strategy Any reaso
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214 PART THREE A Strategy Consider,
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216 PART THREE A Strategy Violates
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218 PART THREE A Strategy Neither i
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220 PART THREE A Strategy restore t
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222 PART THREE A Strategy by the an
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Notes CHAPTER 1: WHO ARE YOU? 1. Th
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226 NOTES 7. “Town’s Terror Fro
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228 NOTES CHAPTER 8: THE BASIC PROB
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230 NOTES 5. “An Exercise in Educ
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abortion, 104, 138 absolutism, 108,
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Henry, Carl F., 99-100 Henslin, Jam
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psychology, 6-7, 11-13, 161 publish
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