THORIUM AS AN ENERGY SOURCE - Opportunities for Norway ...

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Thorium as an Energy Source - Opportunities for Norway x
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Executive Summary The introduction (Chapter 2) summarizes the energy situation worldwide, and summarised below are the major findings of the Thorium Report Committee with regard to the Mandate. Thorium Resources in Norway (Chapter 3) According to the US Geological Survey (USGS 2007), Norway has one of the major thorium resources in the world. The listed resources, i.e. 170 000 tonnes, have a potential energy content which is about 100 times larger than all the oil extracted to date by Norway, plus that of the remaining reserves. Most of the thorium enriched minerals are situated within 3 main regions: the Fen Complex in Telemark County, the Permian Oslo Province, and on the Southeast coast of Norway, in the Kragerø and Langesund area. A series of thorium bearing minerals has been identified at these sites, while the Fen Complex is considered to be the most promising resource, with thorium amounting to about 0.1 – 0.4 wt% (weight percent). Knowledge of Norwegian thorium enriched minerals and their grades is mainly based on results from uranium exploration carried out during two periods, from after the war to 1965 and from 1975 to 1985. The thorium levels were estimated from analyses of uranium in mineral samples, the correlation between uranium and thorium, and from helicopter and ground gamma surveys. Recent helicopter gamma surveys covering the Permian Oslo Province as well as the Fen Complex in Telemark County have confirmed previous gamma survey data. Norway has potential thorium resources, but exploration specifically for thorium has never been undertaken. Knowledge of the grade and associated volumes is scarce. The quoted USGS 2007 weight estimates of the thorium resources date from the 1950s - 1960s and are uncertain. Thus, investigations of the resources, not only in the Fen Complex, but also at other sites in Norway, as well as mineralogical and mineral separation studies should be performed before it can be decided whether the thorium resources in Norway can be defined as an economical asset for the benefit of future generations. The Front End of the Thorium Fuel Cycle (Chapter 4) Production of thorium has been limited due to a lack of demand (it is used mainly in special glasses and alloys); it is a by-product of the separation of rare earth elements. The production of thorium is presently some hundred tonnes per year. The production reached about 1000 tonnes in the 1970s, and has decreased thereafter due to lack of demand. Owing to its chemical toxicity, radiotoxicity and pyrophoricity, adequate precautions are required in the mining and processing of thorium. However, as a result of the very long half-life of thorium, limited quantities of pure thorium-232 can easily be handled, while some shielding is required for large amounts. Preparation of thorium fuel is somewhat more complex and more expensive than for uranium. Thorium as a nuclear fuel is technically well established and behaves remarkably well in Light Water Reactors and High Temperature Reactors. It has demonstrated a very good neutron damage resistance due to its excellent chemical and metallographic stability. 1
Page 1 and 2: 2008 THORIUM AS AN ENERGY SOURCE -
Page 3 and 4: TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents
Page 5 and 6: Table of Contents 14.2 APPENDIX B2:
Page 7 and 8: The Thorium Report Committee was gi
Page 9: Foreword energy area. The price vol
Page 13 and 14: Radiation Protection of Man and the
Page 15 and 16: Executive Summary nuclear engineeri
Page 17 and 18: Introduction In the context of such
Page 19 and 20: 2.3 The EU Situation Introduction T
Page 21 and 22: Oil, Gas, NGL, Condensate (Million
Page 23 and 24: TWh 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90
Page 25 and 26: Figure 2.8: Number of Operating Rea
Page 27 and 28: Tonnes 1 200 000 1 000 000 800 000
Page 29 and 30: US $ / kg UF 6 160 140 120 100 80 6
Page 31 and 32: 2.8 Worldwide Activities on Thorium
Page 33 and 34: 1. Alkaline complexes and their peg
Page 35 and 36: Thorium Resources in Norway The tho
Page 37 and 38: Thorium Resources in Norway The pot
Page 39 and 40: Thorium Resources in Norway A serie
Page 41 and 42: 4.1.1 Mining and Extraction The Fro
Page 43 and 44: The Front End of the Thorium Fuel C
Page 45 and 46: The Front End of the Thorium Fuel C
Page 47 and 48: 4.3.2 HTGR Fuel Performance The Fro
Page 49 and 50: 5.1 Properties of the Fertile Mater
Page 51 and 52: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium Table
Page 53 and 54: 5.3.1 Light Water Reactor (LWR) Nuc
Page 55 and 56: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium 2. Cyc
Page 57 and 58: 5.3.2.4 Gas Turbine-Modular Helium
Page 59 and 60: Figure 5.7: General Layout of the A
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5.4.2 Generation IV Reactors Nuclea
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Nuclear Reactors for Thorium econom
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Nuclear Reactors for Thorium • Ad
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Nuclear Reactors for Thorium temper
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Nuclear Reactors for Thorium Figure
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Nuclear Reactors for Thorium the de
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Nuclear Reactors for Thorium remova
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Nuclear Reactors for Thorium result
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The most important drawbacks of the
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Nuclear Reactors for Thorium mater
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6. THE BACK END OF THE THORIUM FUEL
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The Back End of the Thorium Fuel Cy
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Radiation Protection of Man and the
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8. REGULATION The use of thorium as
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• Safety, security and emergency
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Regulation • The Agreement betwee
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Non-proliferation Nations with secu
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Economical Aspects conventional rea
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11. Radioecology 12. Decommissionin
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Research, Development, Education an
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Conclusions and Recommendations tho
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13. APPENDIX A: INTRODUCTION TO NUC
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14. APPENDIX B: NUCLEAR REACTOR TEC
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Figure 14.3: Boiling Water Reactor
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Appendix B: Nuclear Reactor Technol
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Table 15.1: The Current Course Pack
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• N12 Reactor Thermal Hydraulics,
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16. APPENDIX D: RADIATION PROTECTIO
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Regulations on Radiation Protection
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”Section 4. (Licence for nuclear
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2. Dues shall be paid for the super
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use the best available technology s
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Summary: Legislation that is or may
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216 Po α 0.145 s 6.906 (805) 212 P
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18. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Acro
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Po polonium Po-208 polonium-208 Po-
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19. REFERENCES References Chapter 2
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References [35] J.D. SEASE et al.,
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References [68] E. Merle-Lucotte, D
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References [97] "On-going activites
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References [122] L. CINOTTI, “Inh
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References [149] M. Crick, UNSCEAR,
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