THORIUM AS AN ENERGY SOURCE - Opportunities for Norway ...

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Thorium as an Energy Source - Opportunities for Norway 20 Tonnes 700 000 600 000 500 000 400 000 300 000 200 000 100 000 0 Australia Figure 2.13: Thorium Deposits in the World. World Thorium Reserves and Reserve Base (Resources) India United States Norway Canada Other countries South Africa Figure 2.14: The World Thorium Reserves and Reserve Base (Resources). Brazil Malaysia (Source: US Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2007) Reserve Base Reserves
2.8 Worldwide Activities on Thorium Introduction Worldwide, the highest activity on thorium as a nuclear energy source is found in India where both Kakrapar-1 and -2 units are loaded with 500 kg of thorium blanket. Kakrapar-1 was the first nuclear reactor in the world to use thorium in the blanket, rather than depleted uranium, to achieve power flattening across the reactor core. In addition, the use of thorium based fuel is planned in 4 reactors, which are currently under construction. Today, the average yearly electricity consumption per capita in India is only about 600 kWh per person while the global consumption is about 2500 kWh per person. With a population of more than 1 billion that is growing and one of the fastest growing economies in the world the Indian consumption continues to increase. Today, the total installed electricity capacity in India is about 130 GW (3.5 % of the world total) to which nuclear power contributes about 3.5 %. India has about 1 % of the world’s uranium resources while the thorium resources are one of the largest in the world with about 300 000 tonnes. With about six times more thorium than uranium, India has made utilization of thorium for large-scale energy production a major goal in its nuclear power program, utilizing a three-stage approach: 1. Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs), elsewhere known as CANDUs (CANada Deuterium Uranium) fuelled by natural uranium and Light Water Reactors (LWRs) of the Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) and VVER types. In this stage plutonium is produced. 2. Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) that use this plutonium-based fuel to breed U-233 from thorium. The blanket around the core will have uranium as well as thorium, so that further plutonium (ideally high-fissile plutonium) is produced as well as the U-233. 3. Advanced Heavy Water Reactors (AHWRs) that burn the U-233 and plutonium with thorium, getting about 75 % of their power from the thorium. India’s future program on thorium based nuclear power is important for India’s long term energy security. Some research and development activities are also carried out on the Compact High Temperature Reactor (CHTR) and on the subcritical Accelerator Driven System (ADS) including the development of a high power proton accelerator. Since the early 1990s, Russia has had a program to develop a thorium-uranium fuel, which more recently particularly emphasises the utilisation of weapons-grade plutonium in a thoriumplutonium fuel. The program is based at Moscow's Kurchatov Institute and involves the US company Thorium Power and US government funding to design fuel for Russian VVER-1000 reactors [9]. 21
Page 1 and 2: 2008 THORIUM AS AN ENERGY SOURCE -
Page 3 and 4: TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents
Page 5 and 6: Table of Contents 14.2 APPENDIX B2:
Page 7 and 8: The Thorium Report Committee was gi
Page 9 and 10: Foreword energy area. The price vol
Page 11 and 12: 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Executive Summ
Page 13 and 14: Radiation Protection of Man and the
Page 15 and 16: Executive Summary nuclear engineeri
Page 17 and 18: Introduction In the context of such
Page 19 and 20: 2.3 The EU Situation Introduction T
Page 21 and 22: Oil, Gas, NGL, Condensate (Million
Page 23 and 24: TWh 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90
Page 25 and 26: Figure 2.8: Number of Operating Rea
Page 27 and 28: Tonnes 1 200 000 1 000 000 800 000
Page 29: US $ / kg UF 6 160 140 120 100 80 6
Page 33 and 34: 1. Alkaline complexes and their peg
Page 35 and 36: Thorium Resources in Norway The tho
Page 37 and 38: Thorium Resources in Norway The pot
Page 39 and 40: Thorium Resources in Norway A serie
Page 41 and 42: 4.1.1 Mining and Extraction The Fro
Page 43 and 44: The Front End of the Thorium Fuel C
Page 45 and 46: The Front End of the Thorium Fuel C
Page 47 and 48: 4.3.2 HTGR Fuel Performance The Fro
Page 49 and 50: 5.1 Properties of the Fertile Mater
Page 51 and 52: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium Table
Page 53 and 54: 5.3.1 Light Water Reactor (LWR) Nuc
Page 55 and 56: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium 2. Cyc
Page 57 and 58: 5.3.2.4 Gas Turbine-Modular Helium
Page 59 and 60: Figure 5.7: General Layout of the A
Page 61 and 62: 5.4.2 Generation IV Reactors Nuclea
Page 63 and 64: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium econom
Page 65 and 66: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium • Ad
Page 67 and 68: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium temper
Page 69 and 70: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium Figure
Page 71 and 72: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium the de
Page 73 and 74: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium remova
Page 75 and 76: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium result
Page 77 and 78: The most important drawbacks of the
Page 79 and 80: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium mater
Page 81 and 82:
6. THE BACK END OF THE THORIUM FUEL
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The Back End of the Thorium Fuel Cy
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Page 87 and 88:
Page 89 and 90:
Radiation Protection of Man and the
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Page 93 and 94:
Page 95 and 96:
Page 97 and 98:
8. REGULATION The use of thorium as
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• Safety, security and emergency
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Regulation • The Agreement betwee
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Non-proliferation Nations with secu
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Economical Aspects conventional rea
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11. Radioecology 12. Decommissionin
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Research, Development, Education an
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Page 113 and 114:
Page 115 and 116:
Page 117 and 118:
Conclusions and Recommendations tho
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13. APPENDIX A: INTRODUCTION TO NUC
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14. APPENDIX B: NUCLEAR REACTOR TEC
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Figure 14.3: Boiling Water Reactor
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Appendix B: Nuclear Reactor Technol
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Table 15.1: The Current Course Pack
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• N12 Reactor Thermal Hydraulics,
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16. APPENDIX D: RADIATION PROTECTIO
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Regulations on Radiation Protection
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”Section 4. (Licence for nuclear
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2. Dues shall be paid for the super
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use the best available technology s
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Summary: Legislation that is or may
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216 Po α 0.145 s 6.906 (805) 212 P
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18. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Acro
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Po polonium Po-208 polonium-208 Po-
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19. REFERENCES References Chapter 2
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References [35] J.D. SEASE et al.,
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References [68] E. Merle-Lucotte, D
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References [97] "On-going activites
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References [122] L. CINOTTI, “Inh
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References [149] M. Crick, UNSCEAR,
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