THORIUM AS AN ENERGY SOURCE - Opportunities for Norway ...

Thorium as an Energy Source - Opportunities for Norway
17. LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Electricity Production by Source in 2004. ........................................................................................ 7
Figure 2.2: Greenhouse Gas Emission by Electricity Production Method. ......................................................... 8
Figure 2.3: Historic and Estimated Future World Energy Consumption and Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Production
(IEA Reference Scenario)................................................................................................................. 8
Figure 2.4: Production of Petroleum in Norway from 1971 to 2006................................................................. 11
Figure 2.5: Electricity Price (“System Price”) from 1996 to 2006.................................................................... 12
Figure 2.6: Electricity Production and Consumption in Norway from 1970 to 2007 (Estimated to 2020). ...... 13
Figure 2.7: Numbers of Reactors in Operation Worldwide (as of August 8, 2007).......................................... 14
Figure 2.8: Number of Operating Reactors by Age (as of June 26, 2007). ....................................................... 15
Figure 2.9: The Evolution of Nuclear Power. ................................................................................................... 15
Figure 2.10: The World Uranium Resources (Mining Costs < 130 US$/kgU). .................................................. 17
Figure 2.11: Cumulative Natural Uranium Demand and Resource Levels (Case: Continued Nuclear Growth). 18
Figure 2.12: The World Uranium Spot Price History. ........................................................................................ 19
Figure 2.13: Thorium Deposits in the World. ..................................................................................................... 20
Figure 2.14: The World Thorium Reserves and Reserve Base (Resources)........................................................ 20
Figure 3.1: Bedrock Geology of the Fen Central Complex............................................................................... 24
Figure 3.2: Thorium in the Upper Soil and Bedrocks of the Fen Central Complex. ......................................... 26
Figure 3.3: Uranium in the Upper Soil and Bedrocks of the Fen Central Complex.......................................... 26
Figure 3.4: Photo of a Thin Section of Fen Iron-Rich Carbonatites Examined on SEM-Electron Microscope.27
Figure 3.5: Map of Norway Showing the Location of Thorium-rich sites. ....................................................... 28
Figure 4.1: Fission Gas Release Rates with Modern, High Quality, TRISO Fuels........................................... 37
Figure 5.1: Relevant Isotopes in the Thorium Cycle......................................................................................... 38
Figure 5.2: Absorption Cross Section of Thorium-232 (Th-232) in the Epithermal Neutron Energy Region. .39
Figure 5.3: Fission Cross Sections at High Neutron Energies of the Isotopes Thorium-232 (Th-232), Uranium-
238 (U-238), Plutonium-240 (Pu-240) and Plutonium-242 (Pu-242)............................................. 39
Figure 5.4: Fission Cross Sections of the Isotopes Uranium-233 (U-233), Uranium-235 (U-235) and
Plutonium-239 (Pu-239) in the Thermal Energy Region................................................................ 40
Figure 5.5: The η -Values of U-233, U-235 and Pu-239................................................................................... 40
Figure 5.6: Balance of Fissile Material during the Passage through the Reactor in the Thorium/Denatured
Uranium Cycle (MEU Cycle). ........................................................................................................ 46
Figure 5.7: General Layout of the Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR)................................................. 49
Figure 5.8: Scheme of an Accelerator Driven System (ADS)........................................................................... 56
Figure 5.9: Carlo Rubbia's Energy Amplifier.................................................................................................... 58
Figure 5.10: Schematic View of the Energy Amplifier System for Electricity Production................................. 59
Figure 5.11: Sketch of a Windowless Interface between the Accelerator and the Spallation Region................. 61
Figure 5.12: The Conceptual Design (Right) and the Five Metre Long Liquid Metal MEGAPIE Target.......... 62
Figure 5.13: Assumed Beam Power Increase by a Factor of 2 in One Second. .................................................. 63
Figure 5.14: Power Excursion in a Lead-cooled Energy Amplifier (with k = 0.99) for a Slow Reactivity Ramp
Insertion. ......................................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 6.1: Actinide Radiotoxicity of the Waste if Thorium is used in a CANDU Reactor with Once-through
Operation and HEU as Topping Material (curve A)....................................................................... 72
Figure 6.2 Reduction of Radiotoxicity as a Function of Time Elapsed after Disposal of the Waste in an
Inventory for the Cases of Uranium and Thorium Cycles and with Recycling of all Actinides..... 73
Figure 6.3: Outline of the THOREX Process (Thorium Extraction)................................................................. 75
Figure 7.1: Typical Types of Wastes from Mining, Milling and Refining Thorium......................................... 80
Figure 13.1: Illustration of the Fission Process (Target Nucleus can be U-235, U-233, Pu-239 or Pu-241) .... 109
Figure 13.2: Fuel Pellets and Fuel Pellets Arranged in a Fuel Pin.................................................................... 109
Figure 14.1: Reactor Units by Type as of December 2007. .............................................................................. 111
Figure 14.2: Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)................................................................................................ 112
Figure 14.3: Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)...................................................................................................... 113
Figure 14.4: Schematic drawing of a Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) or the so called CANDU
reactor. .......................................................................................................................................... 114
Figure 14.5: Schematic Drawing of an Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (AGR)................................................ 115
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