THORIUM AS AN ENERGY SOURCE - Opportunities for Norway ...

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Thorium as an Energy Source - Opportunities for Norway 28 Figure 3.5: Map of Norway Showing the Location of Thorium-rich sites. (Source: Geological Survey of Norway, NGU)
Thorium Resources in Norway A series of thorium bearing minerals has been identified at different sites in Norway. Lindahl (2007) has collated present knowledge on the grades (wt%) and volumes of the identified thorium resources, as shown in Table 3.2. The grades vary from rather low (0.2 wt%) in Nordland to relatively high (0.4 wt%) in the Fen Complex. The volume estimates are, however, highly uncertain and in most cases not known. The Fen Complex has been considered as the most promising resource, with an estimated volume of about 170 000 tonnes referred to as reserve and 150 000 tonnes referred to as reserve base (US Geological Survey). The scientific basis for these old estimates of the Fen resources is somewhat unclear. These estimates have not been confirmed by the Geological Survey of Norway. Therefore, the volume given for the Fen Complex is referred to as “large”, indicating that further investigations are needed to confirm the old estimates [12]. Table 3.2: Thorium (Th) Resources in Norway (Location, Concentration and Amount). Location of the Resource Grade of Thorium (wt%) Stokkøy/Arøy, Vestfold 0.2 ? Sæteråsen, Vestfold 0.05 8 Volume Høgtuva, Nordland 0.02 0.5 (+) Ødegården, Aust Agder 0.1 ? Ytterøya, Nord-Trøndelag 0.2 ? Fen (iron ore), Telemark 0.2 - 0.4 ? Fen (iron-rich), Telemark 0.1 - 0.2 Large (Million Tonnes) To conclude the discussion above, Norway has potential thorium resources that through more detailed investigations and the development in mineral processing can qualify to be a reserve. Already in 1895, about 2000 kg of thorite was produced during 1 year at Kragerø. The Fen Complex is considered as the most promising resource, and the thorium enriched carbonatite of the Fen Complex represents so far a "chemical reserve". However, most information available on the thorium resources in Norway is based on limited studies performed from the 1960s to the 1980s and knowledge of the grade and associated volumes is scarce and uncertain. Thus, thorough investigations of the resources, not only in the Fen Complex, but also at other sites in Norway, as well as mineralogical and mineral separation studies should be performed to decide whether thorium in Norwegian rocks can be exploited and thereby qualify to be a reserve. 29
Page 1 and 2: 2008 THORIUM AS AN ENERGY SOURCE -
Page 3 and 4: TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents
Page 5 and 6: Table of Contents 14.2 APPENDIX B2:
Page 7 and 8: The Thorium Report Committee was gi
Page 9 and 10: Foreword energy area. The price vol
Page 11 and 12: 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Executive Summ
Page 13 and 14: Radiation Protection of Man and the
Page 15 and 16: Executive Summary nuclear engineeri
Page 17 and 18: Introduction In the context of such
Page 19 and 20: 2.3 The EU Situation Introduction T
Page 21 and 22: Oil, Gas, NGL, Condensate (Million
Page 23 and 24: TWh 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90
Page 25 and 26: Figure 2.8: Number of Operating Rea
Page 27 and 28: Tonnes 1 200 000 1 000 000 800 000
Page 29 and 30: US $ / kg UF 6 160 140 120 100 80 6
Page 31 and 32: 2.8 Worldwide Activities on Thorium
Page 33 and 34: 1. Alkaline complexes and their peg
Page 35 and 36: Thorium Resources in Norway The tho
Page 37: Thorium Resources in Norway The pot
Page 41 and 42: 4.1.1 Mining and Extraction The Fro
Page 43 and 44: The Front End of the Thorium Fuel C
Page 45 and 46: The Front End of the Thorium Fuel C
Page 47 and 48: 4.3.2 HTGR Fuel Performance The Fro
Page 49 and 50: 5.1 Properties of the Fertile Mater
Page 51 and 52: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium Table
Page 53 and 54: 5.3.1 Light Water Reactor (LWR) Nuc
Page 55 and 56: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium 2. Cyc
Page 57 and 58: 5.3.2.4 Gas Turbine-Modular Helium
Page 59 and 60: Figure 5.7: General Layout of the A
Page 61 and 62: 5.4.2 Generation IV Reactors Nuclea
Page 63 and 64: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium econom
Page 65 and 66: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium • Ad
Page 67 and 68: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium temper
Page 69 and 70: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium Figure
Page 71 and 72: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium the de
Page 73 and 74: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium remova
Page 75 and 76: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium result
Page 77 and 78: The most important drawbacks of the
Page 79 and 80: Nuclear Reactors for Thorium mater
Page 81 and 82: 6. THE BACK END OF THE THORIUM FUEL
Page 83 and 84: The Back End of the Thorium Fuel Cy
Page 89 and 90:
Radiation Protection of Man and the
Page 91 and 92:
Page 93 and 94:
Page 95 and 96:
Page 97 and 98:
8. REGULATION The use of thorium as
Page 99 and 100:
• Safety, security and emergency
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Regulation • The Agreement betwee
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Non-proliferation Nations with secu
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Economical Aspects conventional rea
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11. Radioecology 12. Decommissionin
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Research, Development, Education an
Page 111 and 112:
Page 113 and 114:
Page 115 and 116:
Page 117 and 118:
Conclusions and Recommendations tho
Page 119 and 120:
13. APPENDIX A: INTRODUCTION TO NUC
Page 121 and 122:
14. APPENDIX B: NUCLEAR REACTOR TEC
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Figure 14.3: Boiling Water Reactor
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Appendix B: Nuclear Reactor Technol
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Table 15.1: The Current Course Pack
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• N12 Reactor Thermal Hydraulics,
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16. APPENDIX D: RADIATION PROTECTIO
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Regulations on Radiation Protection
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”Section 4. (Licence for nuclear
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2. Dues shall be paid for the super
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use the best available technology s
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Summary: Legislation that is or may
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216 Po α 0.145 s 6.906 (805) 212 P
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18. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Acro
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Po polonium Po-208 polonium-208 Po-
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19. REFERENCES References Chapter 2
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References [35] J.D. SEASE et al.,
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References [68] E. Merle-Lucotte, D
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References [97] "On-going activites
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References [122] L. CINOTTI, “Inh
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References [149] M. Crick, UNSCEAR,
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