National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant Strategy Background Paper

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124 Recommendations from the consultations and submissions included a need to strengthen strategic intelligence and to improve national controls so authorities can gain knowledge about who is involved in the illicit trade. It was also suggested that there needs to be improved intelligence regarding the manufacturing and distribution believed by consumers to be locally produced, but not confirmed by law enforcement agencies. 6.5 Local drug markets Because drug markets are where ‘supply and demand converge’, intervention strategies need to target both as reducing the supply of a drug to local markets can have a dramatic effect on both criminal justice and health outcomes (Weatherburn et al., 2003). Infiltrating these markets requires knowledge of how the market operates. The 2006 DUMA report suggested that, in clandestine illicit drug markets, it can be quite difficult for buyers and sellers to become connected and effort is required even for experienced buyers to assess the options available in the market (Mouzos et al., 2007). In most markets, the buyer and seller make a significant time investment in the exchange relationship (Wilkins et al., 2004). Nevertheless, a significant proportion of police detainees and injecting drug users (IDU) are active in the methamphetamine market. Furthermore, as indicated by the 2004 <strong>National</strong> Drug <strong>Strategy</strong> Household Survey (NDSHS), this market is also available to the general population as approximately 110,000 persons aged 14 years and older reported accessing the methamphetamine market within the last week (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2005a). There are differences in the ways consumers access illegal drug markets for different drug types (see Table 6.4). The 2004 NDSHS reported that both meth/amphetamine and ecstasy were more commonly obtained from a friend (70%) than a dealer (23%) (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2005a). In contrast, the most common method among police detainees was contacting a dealer for methamphetamine by calling on a mobile phone (31%), or visiting the dealer’s residence (26%) (Mouzos et al., 2007). The 2006 DUMA report found that, irrespective of the drug purchased, detainees were more likely to have purchased their drugs from a regular source, although a higher proportion of detainees purchased ecstasy from a new source compared to other drugs (Mouzos et al., 2007). When methamphetamine is bought within the detainee’s own suburb, the supplier is likely to be a regular supplier. They are also more likely to report sourcing from a house or flat for the drug in contrast to heroin which is more likely to be sourced on the street (Mouzos et al., 2007). However, detainees who had used a new source at their last time of purchasing methamphetamine were more likely to have purchased the drug from the street (Mouzos et al., 2007). A major study of the market in Sydney also found that purchasing from street dealers was uncommon among a sample of regular methamphetamine users (McKetin et al., 2005). Among the national sample for the 2006 Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS), all forms of methamphetamine were most commonly purchased from ‘friends’ and ‘known dealers’, and the most common locations of purchase were ‘agreed public location’, ‘friend’s home’ and ‘dealer’s home’ (O’Brien et al., 2007). This was replicated in the 2006 Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS), with the exception of ‘agreed public location’ as a common location of purchase (Dunn et al., 2007).
125 Table 6.4: Key drug market characteristics for those who paid cash for drugs in the past 30 days, adult police detainees (%) Cannabis Heroin Methamphetamine Cocaine Ecstasy Method of contacting dealer Mobile phone 20 42 31 36 33 Phone 12 24 20 22 14 Visit a house or flat 37 11 26 12 14 Approach them in public 14 14 10 11 19 Location of last buy In own suburb 48 33 34 32 32 Place of purchase House or flat 60 26 53 41 42 Street 22 55 29 26 28 Home delivery 11 11 10 22 14 Source Regular source 57 65 57 55 44 Occasional source 26 18 25 30 27 New source 17 17 18 15 29 a: For those detainees who provided urine only Note: Excludes some categories, and therefore does not sum to 100 Source: AIC, DUMA collection 2006 [computer file] Given the usual method of purchase from known sources in private or agreed locations, tackling street level markets will have limited impact. However, if users seeking out new sources do so in street markets, then strategies to reduce availability are important. Furthermore, research has shown that the perceived risk of law enforcement is a major factor affecting which markets users will access, how they use and entry into treatment (Weatherburn & Lind, 1999). In addition, research shows delaying the onset of initiation (and by implication access to markets for first time users) reduces the risks of long term health and criminal justice harms. Concern over the level of policing local markets was raised in the consultations: Despite recent developments and concerns about illicit drug trafficking States and Territories have scaled down specialist units to assist with the detection and dismantling of illegal drug sources. While these may be costly and labour intensive for small States and Territories they are crucial to supply reduction. An important consideration in tackling markets is to minimise displacement of the drug market to another location. There has been controversy over street level policing of heroin markets in terms of claims of displacement (Maher et al., 1998). However, by comparing property crime data for ACT and surrounding areas of NSW, Ratcliffe & Makkai (2004) provide evidence suggesting that intelligence-led targeted policing can have significant effects in reducing crime. When displacement does occur, the criminal activity is often of a lesser degree both in terms of volume and seriousness (Weisburd et al., 2006; Braga, 2005). Thus, Ratcliffe and Makkai (2004) concluded that:
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National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant
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ii Acknowledgments This research wo
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iv Table of contents Acknowledgemen
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vi List of tables Table 1.1: Amphet
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viii
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2 The NDS framework and the Law Enf
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4 Table 1.1: Amphetamine-type stimu
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6 particularly on the Pacific Coast
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8 Figure 1.1: MDMA (ecstasy) tablet
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10 a 10-year period. While some of
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12 Figure 1.4: Forms of methampheta
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14 Figure 1.5: Median purity of met
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16 As noted, the route of administr
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18 Chapter 2: Setting the Context T
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20 Figure 2.2: Prevalence of ecstas
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22 19 years (Dunn et al., 2007). Th
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24 The use of MDMA among police det
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26 this survey is conducted with th
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28 models might be useful. On the o
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30 the questionnaire in February 20
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32 2.5 Summary According to the lat
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34 anxiety, agitation, tremor, teet
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36 may be stronger than the link wi
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38 Srisurapanot and colleagues (200
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40 Psychiatric problems appear to o
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42 In 2005, there was a total of 68
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44 The most recent EDRS survey foun
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46 same reasons they use the drugs
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48 Shoptaw and Reback (2007) review
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50 It has also been speculated that
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52 Parental ATS use In addition to
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54 The Minnesota Department of Heal
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56 Chapter 4: Prevention and Harm R
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58 should cover the full range of d
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60 specific drug (Spoth et al., 200
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62 be applied regularly and systema
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64 Strategies targeting vulnerable
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66 Examples of particular periods t
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68 At-risk workplaces There is incr
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70 The consultation forum with Abor
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72 young people was noted in the su
Page 84 and 85: 74 and/or others); mental health ef
Page 86 and 87: 76 of the fact that frequently peop
Page 88 and 89: 78 Sexual risk behaviour is a furth
Page 90 and 91: 80 • Cleaning up; • Transport o
Page 92 and 93: 82 Assessing the risks of illicitly
Page 94 and 95: 84 4.4 Challenges of applying preve
Page 96 and 97: 86 but a number of studies are now
Page 98 and 99: 88 The pack included a video, train
Page 100 and 101: 90 Chapter 5: Treatment and Service
Page 102 and 103: 92 to the occurrence of amphetamine
Page 104 and 105: 94 In relation to the need for spec
Page 106 and 107: 96 These studies replicate earlier
Page 108 and 109: 98 addressed not only the drug user
Page 110 and 111: 100 Research conducted in the subse
Page 112 and 113: 102 users, data that may be general
Page 114 and 115: 104 that limit brain exposure to me
Page 116 and 117: 106 only significant difference was
Page 118 and 119: 108 through the use of antipsychoti
Page 120 and 121: 110 to develop the capacity of the
Page 122 and 123: 112 It was also suggested that link
Page 124 and 125: 114 as new evidence emerges. New ps
Page 126 and 127: 116 border in 2000 (McKetin et al.,
Page 128 and 129: 118 Table 6.1: Number of clandestin
Page 130 and 131: 120 Table 6.2: Examples of domestic
Page 132 and 133: 122 Tasmania In 2004, strengthened
Page 136 and 137: 126 Although there are a number of
Page 138 and 139: 128 illegal drugs. When incarcerate
Page 140 and 141: 130 heroin) (Payne et al., 2007). I
Page 142 and 143: 132 Some examples of diversion prog
Page 144 and 145: 134 Other research has compared psy
Page 146 and 147: 136 Rehabilitation in Corrections T
Page 148 and 149: 138 Synthetic Drugs measure will im
Page 150 and 151: 140 • Stealing from motor vehicle
Page 152 and 153: 142 criminal offences There continu
Page 154 and 155: 144 • Increase international coll
Page 156 and 157: 146 • Ensuring offence and penalt
Page 158 and 159: 148 Law enforcement agencies are pl
Page 160 and 161: 150 Appendix 1 National consultatio
Page 162 and 163: 152 Appendix 2 Written submissions
Page 164 and 165: 154 Australian Institute of Health
Page 166 and 167: 156 Bowers, J. & Johnson, S. (2003)
Page 168 and 169: 158 Crits-Christoph, P., Siqueland,
Page 170 and 171: 160 Drug & Alcohol Services South A
Page 172 and 173: 162 Halkitis, P.N., Parsons, J.T.,
Page 174 and 175: 164 Hull, P., Rawstorne, P., Zablot
Page 176 and 177: 166 Leek, L., Seneque, D., & Ward,
Page 178 and 179: 168 McKetin, R., McLaren, J., Kelly
Page 180 and 181: 170 NSW Health (2006). Psychostimul
Page 182 and 183: 172 Ressler, K.J., & Nemeroff, C.B.
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174 Small, W., Kerr, T., Charette,
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176 United Nations Office for Drug
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National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant Strategy Background Paper

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