National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant Strategy Background Paper

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54 The Minnesota Department of Health (2002) outlined the following common chemicals found in methamphetamine laboratories and their physical effects: • Solvents (e.g., acetone, ether/starter fluid, methanol, white gas, xylene), which have been linked to irritation to skin, eyes, nose and throat; headaches; dizziness; depression; nausea; vomiting; visual disturbance and cancer; • Corrosives/irritants (e.g., anhydrous ammonia, hydriodic acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphine, sodium hydroxide, sulphuric acid), which have been linked to coughing; eye, skin and respiratory irritation; burns and inflammation; gastrointestinal disturbances; thirst; chest tightness; muscle pain; dizziness; and convulsions; and • Metals/salts (e.g., iodine, lithium metal, red phosphorous, yellow phosphorous, sodium metal), which have been linked with eye, skin, nose and respiratory irritation; chest tightness; headaches; stomach pain; birth defects; and jaundice/kidney damage. ATS are often manufactured in private residences, or ‘backyard clandestine laboratories’, and this can place children at high risk. In the United States, the <strong>National</strong> Drug Intelligence Centre (2002) noted that 2028 children were present at seized methamphetamine laboratory sites and that 35% of those tested positive for toxic levels of chemicals. Health effects for children exposed to these chemicals include gastrointestinal problems, chemical burns, brain damage, headaches, skin and eye irritations (Horton, Berkowitz & Kaye, 2003), tachycardia, agitation, irritability and vomiting (Kolecki, 1998). Such issues are receiving increasing attention in Australia. For example, the Drug Misuse and Trafficking Amendment Act (NSW) recently established new penalties for the endangerment of children by exposure to illicit drug manufacture. 3.7 Summary The primary action of ATS in the brain is to elevate levels of dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline. Methamphetamine has a stronger effect on dopamine levels while ecstasy is more strongly associated with serotonin levels. The sought after effects of ATS include a sense of wellbeing, euphoria, increased alertness and concentration, diminished appetite, enhanced confidence, sharpened sensory awareness. The short-term adverse effects include restlessness, irritation, anxiety, teeth grinding, insomnia, sweating and increased heart rate. Prolonged use of ATS can also have several long-term effects in diverse areas of functioning. The primary adverse cognitive effects for all types of ATS appear to be deficits in working memory, attention and executive function. Several psychological problems have been identified in association with ATS use, most notably, depression, anxiety and psychosis. Well documented is the link between use of crystal methamphetamine and psychotic symptoms, which can be associated with violent behaviour. Dependence is another adverse outcome of ATS use, associated more with the use of methamphetamine than ecstasy. Dependence is also more strongly associated with injecting and smoking methamphetamine, than with other routes of administration such as snorting and swallowing. Other effects are specific to route of administration; for example, increased
55 risk of blood borne virus transmission with certain injecting practices. In addition, there are several adverse physical outcomes of ATS use such as hypertension, irregular body temperature, cardiac arrhythmia, metabolic disturbances, poor dental hygiene and lethargy. There is some research on neurotoxicity and overdose associated with ATS use, with deaths more often resulting from use of methamphetamine than ecstasy. ATS use can also have adverse behavioural and social effects. Many ATS users are polydrug users and use of ATS in combination with other drugs, including alcohol, can increase related harms. Certain contexts of use increase the risk of harm. For example, ATS use can impair driving ability and workplace safety. ATS use has been associated with risky sexual practices, such as a failure to use protection thereby increasing the risk of sexually transmitted infections. There is growing research on the use of ATS in homosexual populations, particularly among gay males. Methamphetamine has also been associated with aggression and violence, and linked to some criminal activity. In addition to the effects of ATS use on the individual, there may be a wider impact on family, friends and the broad community. ATS use can have a detrimental effect on relationships, with the user becoming increasingly alienated from social networks. ATS use during pregnancy can negatively affect the developing foetus as can use while breastfeeding. Parental ATS use can result in adverse outcomes for children. Finally, exposure to methamphetamine manufacture represents a potential harm for children and the wider community, including those responsible for cleaning up production sites. The need for further research into the effects of ATS use was raised during consultations. The most neglected areas of research were seen as epidemiological information about patterns of drug use and related problems; the long-term effects of ATS use; neuropsychological deficits and their impact on the effectiveness of treatment; effects of ATS use during pregnancy; memory deficits associated with use; and strategies to enhance engagement with treatment services.
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National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant
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ii Acknowledgments This research wo
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iv Table of contents Acknowledgemen
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vi List of tables Table 1.1: Amphet
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viii
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2 The NDS framework and the Law Enf
Page 14 and 15: 4 Table 1.1: Amphetamine-type stimu
Page 16 and 17: 6 particularly on the Pacific Coast
Page 18 and 19: 8 Figure 1.1: MDMA (ecstasy) tablet
Page 20 and 21: 10 a 10-year period. While some of
Page 22 and 23: 12 Figure 1.4: Forms of methampheta
Page 24 and 25: 14 Figure 1.5: Median purity of met
Page 26 and 27: 16 As noted, the route of administr
Page 28 and 29: 18 Chapter 2: Setting the Context T
Page 30 and 31: 20 Figure 2.2: Prevalence of ecstas
Page 32 and 33: 22 19 years (Dunn et al., 2007). Th
Page 34 and 35: 24 The use of MDMA among police det
Page 36 and 37: 26 this survey is conducted with th
Page 38 and 39: 28 models might be useful. On the o
Page 40 and 41: 30 the questionnaire in February 20
Page 42 and 43: 32 2.5 Summary According to the lat
Page 44 and 45: 34 anxiety, agitation, tremor, teet
Page 46 and 47: 36 may be stronger than the link wi
Page 48 and 49: 38 Srisurapanot and colleagues (200
Page 50 and 51: 40 Psychiatric problems appear to o
Page 52 and 53: 42 In 2005, there was a total of 68
Page 54 and 55: 44 The most recent EDRS survey foun
Page 56 and 57: 46 same reasons they use the drugs
Page 58 and 59: 48 Shoptaw and Reback (2007) review
Page 60 and 61: 50 It has also been speculated that
Page 62 and 63: 52 Parental ATS use In addition to
Page 66 and 67: 56 Chapter 4: Prevention and Harm R
Page 68 and 69: 58 should cover the full range of d
Page 70 and 71: 60 specific drug (Spoth et al., 200
Page 72 and 73: 62 be applied regularly and systema
Page 74 and 75: 64 Strategies targeting vulnerable
Page 76 and 77: 66 Examples of particular periods t
Page 78 and 79: 68 At-risk workplaces There is incr
Page 80 and 81: 70 The consultation forum with Abor
Page 82 and 83: 72 young people was noted in the su
Page 84 and 85: 74 and/or others); mental health ef
Page 86 and 87: 76 of the fact that frequently peop
Page 88 and 89: 78 Sexual risk behaviour is a furth
Page 90 and 91: 80 • Cleaning up; • Transport o
Page 92 and 93: 82 Assessing the risks of illicitly
Page 94 and 95: 84 4.4 Challenges of applying preve
Page 96 and 97: 86 but a number of studies are now
Page 98 and 99: 88 The pack included a video, train
Page 100 and 101: 90 Chapter 5: Treatment and Service
Page 102 and 103: 92 to the occurrence of amphetamine
Page 104 and 105: 94 In relation to the need for spec
Page 106 and 107: 96 These studies replicate earlier
Page 108 and 109: 98 addressed not only the drug user
Page 110 and 111: 100 Research conducted in the subse
Page 112 and 113: 102 users, data that may be general
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104 that limit brain exposure to me
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106 only significant difference was
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108 through the use of antipsychoti
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110 to develop the capacity of the
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112 It was also suggested that link
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114 as new evidence emerges. New ps
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116 border in 2000 (McKetin et al.,
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118 Table 6.1: Number of clandestin
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120 Table 6.2: Examples of domestic
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122 Tasmania In 2004, strengthened
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124 Recommendations from the consul
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126 Although there are a number of
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128 illegal drugs. When incarcerate
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130 heroin) (Payne et al., 2007). I
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132 Some examples of diversion prog
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134 Other research has compared psy
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136 Rehabilitation in Corrections T
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138 Synthetic Drugs measure will im
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140 • Stealing from motor vehicle
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142 criminal offences There continu
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144 • Increase international coll
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146 • Ensuring offence and penalt
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148 Law enforcement agencies are pl
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150 Appendix 1 National consultatio
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152 Appendix 2 Written submissions
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154 Australian Institute of Health
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156 Bowers, J. & Johnson, S. (2003)
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158 Crits-Christoph, P., Siqueland,
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160 Drug & Alcohol Services South A
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162 Halkitis, P.N., Parsons, J.T.,
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164 Hull, P., Rawstorne, P., Zablot
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166 Leek, L., Seneque, D., & Ward,
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168 McKetin, R., McLaren, J., Kelly
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170 NSW Health (2006). Psychostimul
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172 Ressler, K.J., & Nemeroff, C.B.
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174 Small, W., Kerr, T., Charette,
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176 United Nations Office for Drug
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National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant Strategy Background Paper

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