National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant Strategy Background Paper

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18 Chapter 2: Setting the Context The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) World Drug Report 2007 noted an overall stabilisation of the amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) market worldwide. The increases found in production and demand throughout the 1990s appears to have leveled off, and this was attributed to improved efforts to monitor and control precursor chemicals. The Report stated that the largest production areas for methamphetamine remained in South East Asia and in North America, while both amphetamine and ecstasy production are primarily located in Europe. ATS continued to be the second most widely consumed drug group, after cannabis, with an estimated 25 million people worldwide using ATS (including ecstasy) in the previous 12 months over the 2005-06 period. Of these persons, an estimated 63% used methamphetamine, 16% used amphetamine, and 21% used other amphetamine and diverted licit amphetamine. In 2005, the highest prevalent rates for methamphetamine were in the Philippines, followed by Australia. Annual prevalence of amphetamine was highest in the Oceania region and Australia reported the highest rate within this region. 2.1 Prevalence of amphetamine-type stimulant use in the general population of Australia Meth/amphetamine According to the 2004 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), meth/ amphetamine is the second most frequently used illicit drug in Australia after cannabis. Nine percent of Australians aged 14 years and older, about 1.5 million persons, have used meth/ amphetamine for non-medical purposes at least once in their lifetime (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2005a). The 2004 NDSHS estimated there were 532,100 persons (3.2%) who had used meth/amphetamine in the last 12 months and 97,000 persons (0.6%) had used the drug in the past week. The NDSHS consistently shows that self-reported rates of methamphetamine use in the past year are higher than rates of heroin use (see Figure 2.1). Figure 2.1: Percent of general population who have used methamphetamine and heroin in the past 12 months Source: 1993-2004 National Drug Strategy Household Survey
19 Of those who had used methamphetamine in the past 12 months, 11% used at least once a week (n=58,500), 45% monthly or every few months (n=239,400) and 43% used once or twice (n=228,800). Just over half reported using the drug in powder form (51%), while 23% reported using powder and crystal, 11% crystal only and 11% other forms. Adjusting for potential underreporting, the total number of users is estimated to be closer to 102,600 of whom around 72,700 are dependent users (McKetin et al., 2005). The NDSHS show that patterns of use have generally increased since the early 1990s, with levels of recent use increasing by 60% over the 1993–2004 period (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2005a). However, the two most recent surveys suggest rates are stabilising - 4.2% of males in 2001 compared to 4.0% in 2004 reported use of methamphetamine in the past 12 months and 2.7% of females in 2001 compared to 2.5% in 2004. Significant differences exist between age cohorts, with the highest use of methamphetamine in the 20 to 29 year age cohort (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2005a). About one in every five young adults in the 20 to 29 age cohort has tried this drug at least once and the average age of first use is 20.8 years. Many participants in the consultations noted the decreasing age of first time ATS use while some, like the consumer groups, also noted the increased use among older people particularly in the gay community. The consultations and submissions also acknowledged the increasing trends in amphetamine use up to 2004, but did not perceive a current ‘epidemic’ of methamphetamine use, as portrayed in the media. Demographic and geographic variations in the patterns of use across the country were noted and these may not be reflected in NDSHS statistics. For example, police in one regional area did not view ATS as a major issue suggesting it was used primarily by a relatively small group of ‘thrill seekers’ and alcohol was contributing to higher levels of problems in the community. MDMA (Ecstasy) According to the 2004 NDSHS, there was no statistically significant increase in amphetamine use amongst the general population, while use of MDMA has steadily increased. Lifetime use increased from 1% in 1988 to 7.5% in 2004 and use in the past 12 months increased from 1% to 3.4% over the same time period (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2005a). Smaller proportions had used ecstasy in the last month (1.3%) and in the last week (0.5%). As with methamphetamine, the 20–29 year age group had the highest proportion of persons ever using MDMA (22%). Males were more likely to use ecstasy than females, both in their lifetime (9.1% versus 6.05) and in the last 12 months (4.4% versus 2.4%). Increased prevalence of ecstasy use was noted at consultations and there was general concern that its use had become perceived as a ‘harmless recreational/party drug’ to be taken occasionally. Participants commented that its effects are seen as less acute than those of other ATS and indeed, there is a lack of awareness that it is related to other ATS. One participant stated that it was a preferred drug due to its image as ‘softer’ and ‘less potent’. At some consultations it was suggested that ecstasy use is more prevalent than crystal methamphetamine in affluent sectors and among university students, partly due to a perception of acceptability of use, ‘elitism’, its image as a social drug, and a lack of awareness of adverse consequences.
Page 1: National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant
Page 4 and 5: ii Acknowledgments This research wo
Page 6 and 7: iv Table of contents Acknowledgemen
Page 8 and 9: vi List of tables Table 1.1: Amphet
Page 10 and 11: viii
Page 12 and 13: 2 The NDS framework and the Law Enf
Page 14 and 15: 4 Table 1.1: Amphetamine-type stimu
Page 16 and 17: 6 particularly on the Pacific Coast
Page 18 and 19: 8 Figure 1.1: MDMA (ecstasy) tablet
Page 20 and 21: 10 a 10-year period. While some of
Page 22 and 23: 12 Figure 1.4: Forms of methampheta
Page 24 and 25: 14 Figure 1.5: Median purity of met
Page 26 and 27: 16 As noted, the route of administr
Page 30 and 31: 20 Figure 2.2: Prevalence of ecstas
Page 32 and 33: 22 19 years (Dunn et al., 2007). Th
Page 34 and 35: 24 The use of MDMA among police det
Page 36 and 37: 26 this survey is conducted with th
Page 38 and 39: 28 models might be useful. On the o
Page 40 and 41: 30 the questionnaire in February 20
Page 42 and 43: 32 2.5 Summary According to the lat
Page 44 and 45: 34 anxiety, agitation, tremor, teet
Page 46 and 47: 36 may be stronger than the link wi
Page 48 and 49: 38 Srisurapanot and colleagues (200
Page 50 and 51: 40 Psychiatric problems appear to o
Page 52 and 53: 42 In 2005, there was a total of 68
Page 54 and 55: 44 The most recent EDRS survey foun
Page 56 and 57: 46 same reasons they use the drugs
Page 58 and 59: 48 Shoptaw and Reback (2007) review
Page 60 and 61: 50 It has also been speculated that
Page 62 and 63: 52 Parental ATS use In addition to
Page 64 and 65: 54 The Minnesota Department of Heal
Page 66 and 67: 56 Chapter 4: Prevention and Harm R
Page 68 and 69: 58 should cover the full range of d
Page 70 and 71: 60 specific drug (Spoth et al., 200
Page 72 and 73: 62 be applied regularly and systema
Page 74 and 75: 64 Strategies targeting vulnerable
Page 76 and 77: 66 Examples of particular periods t
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68 At-risk workplaces There is incr
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70 The consultation forum with Abor
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72 young people was noted in the su
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74 and/or others); mental health ef
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76 of the fact that frequently peop
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78 Sexual risk behaviour is a furth
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80 • Cleaning up; • Transport o
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82 Assessing the risks of illicitly
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84 4.4 Challenges of applying preve
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86 but a number of studies are now
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88 The pack included a video, train
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90 Chapter 5: Treatment and Service
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92 to the occurrence of amphetamine
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94 In relation to the need for spec
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96 These studies replicate earlier
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98 addressed not only the drug user
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100 Research conducted in the subse
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102 users, data that may be general
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104 that limit brain exposure to me
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106 only significant difference was
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108 through the use of antipsychoti
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110 to develop the capacity of the
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112 It was also suggested that link
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114 as new evidence emerges. New ps
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116 border in 2000 (McKetin et al.,
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118 Table 6.1: Number of clandestin
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120 Table 6.2: Examples of domestic
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122 Tasmania In 2004, strengthened
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124 Recommendations from the consul
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126 Although there are a number of
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128 illegal drugs. When incarcerate
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130 heroin) (Payne et al., 2007). I
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132 Some examples of diversion prog
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134 Other research has compared psy
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136 Rehabilitation in Corrections T
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138 Synthetic Drugs measure will im
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140 • Stealing from motor vehicle
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142 criminal offences There continu
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144 • Increase international coll
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146 • Ensuring offence and penalt
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148 Law enforcement agencies are pl
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150 Appendix 1 National consultatio
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152 Appendix 2 Written submissions
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154 Australian Institute of Health
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156 Bowers, J. & Johnson, S. (2003)
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158 Crits-Christoph, P., Siqueland,
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160 Drug & Alcohol Services South A
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162 Halkitis, P.N., Parsons, J.T.,
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164 Hull, P., Rawstorne, P., Zablot
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166 Leek, L., Seneque, D., & Ward,
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168 McKetin, R., McLaren, J., Kelly
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170 NSW Health (2006). Psychostimul
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172 Ressler, K.J., & Nemeroff, C.B.
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174 Small, W., Kerr, T., Charette,
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176 United Nations Office for Drug
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178
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