National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant Strategy Background Paper

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14 Figure 1.5: Median purity of methamphetamine samples, 2001/02–2005/06 Note: Breaks in the lines in this chart indicate that no seizures were analysed in that quarter. Source: ACC Illicit drug report 2005-06:16. Given that all the forms of methamphetamine are classified together by forensic laboratories for testing, it is difficult to determine the purity of the different forms. Estimates ranged from 10% purity for powder forms, 21% for base methamphetamine, and 19% to 80% for crystalline methamphetamine (<strong>National</strong> Leadership Forum on Ice, 2006). The majority of IDU in the 2006 IDRS reported the current purity of powder as ‘low’, base as ‘medium’, and the purity of crystal methamphetamine as ‘high’ (O’Brien et al., 2007). The greatest proportion of IDU rated the purity of all forms of methamphetamine as ‘stable’ over the previous six months (O’Brien et al., 2007). Differences emerged in perceptions across capital cities of drug purity by IDU. Ratings of ‘high’ purity for both speed and base were greatest in Melbourne (25% and 50% respectively) and Adelaide (24% and 49% respectively), and for crystal in Brisbane (68%), Perth (59%) and Hobart (51%) (O’Brien et al., 2007). In the 2006 EDRS, the greatest proportion of REU reported the purity of all forms of methamphetamine as ‘high’ or ‘medium’ (Dunn et al., 2007). It is noted that these ratings are subjective in nature and although some users report the quality as high, the overall median purity generally remains low at less than 20% for those seizures tested by State and Territory police (Australian Crime Commission, 2007). However, AFP seizures have a much higher medium purity suggesting that methamphetamine, once it reaches users, has been significantly adulterated (Australian Crime Commission, 2007).
15 In the 2006 EDRS, the majority of REU in the national sample rated the current purity of ecstasy tablets as ‘medium’ (38%), followed by ‘fluctuates’ (31%) (Dunn et al., 2007). Accordingly, 32% of the national sample each rated purity of ecstasy over the previous six months as ‘stable’ and ‘fluctuated’ (Dunn et al., 2007). Ratings of current purity as ‘high’ were greatest among REU in Canberra (23%), Brisbane (22%) and Sydney (20%), while ratings of current purity as ‘low’ was greatest in Perth (22%) (Dunn et al., 2007). As noted, the purity of ecstasy tablets varies considerably because of the mode of manufacture and levels of adulterants. The median purity of phenethylamines is estimated between 20% and 40% (Australian Crime Commission, 2007). There was considerable comment across consultations and within the jurisdictions about the variable quality of ATS. It was suggested at one consultation that domestically manufactured ATS are becoming purer in content, although are still not to the standard of those imported from SE Asia. Many at the consultations and key stakeholders considered street amphetamine to be heavily adulterated with other substances including sugar, ephedrine, glucose, talcum powder and quinine. One adulterant used in the production of methamphetamine is dimethylsulphone (also known as MSM), a dietary supplement for arthritis sufferers. MSM can be added to methamphetamine during the final stages of the production process to give a similar appearance to crystal methamphetamine (Fetherston & Lenton, 2007). This may in turn lead some users to believe that they are consuming the higher potency crystalline form of methamphetamine when they are consuming lower purity forms of methamphetamine which have been given a crystal appearance. The written submission from the <strong>National</strong> Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) noted previous research suggesting that: Several shifts in the drug market over the past decade have prompted concern. These include a shift from amphetamine to methamphetamine supply in the mid 1990s, an increase in the prevalence of use and related indicators in the late 1990s, and an increase in the purity of street level seizures of the drug from this time, with the emergence of imported high purity crystalline methamphetamine. Current community concern about methamphetamine reflects the culmination of these trends and a growing public awareness about this drug problem. 1.9 Routes of administration Meth/amphetamine can be consumed by a variety of methods or routes of administration, including oral (swallowing), nasal (snorting), inhalation (smoking), vaginal/anal (shelving/ shafting), and intravenous (injection). The method of administration depends both on the form of the drug and the norms of different groups of users (Mundy, 2001), and is a significant mediating factor on the effect of a drug. Various routes of administration are preferred because they can enhance or facilitate drug effects. A study of the Sydney methamphetamine market found that the majority of amphetamine users who had tried powder, base and crystal methamphetamine preferred the purer forms of the drug to achieve ‘a more intense and longer lasting high’ (McKetin, McLaren & Kelly, 2005). Intranasal or oral ingestion are common routes of administration by novice and recreational users, while injection is a common route of administration among heavier dependent users (Ross, 2007).
Page 1: National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant
Page 4 and 5: ii Acknowledgments This research wo
Page 6 and 7: iv Table of contents Acknowledgemen
Page 8 and 9: vi List of tables Table 1.1: Amphet
Page 10 and 11: viii
Page 12 and 13: 2 The NDS framework and the Law Enf
Page 14 and 15: 4 Table 1.1: Amphetamine-type stimu
Page 16 and 17: 6 particularly on the Pacific Coast
Page 18 and 19: 8 Figure 1.1: MDMA (ecstasy) tablet
Page 20 and 21: 10 a 10-year period. While some of
Page 22 and 23: 12 Figure 1.4: Forms of methampheta
Page 26 and 27: 16 As noted, the route of administr
Page 28 and 29: 18 Chapter 2: Setting the Context T
Page 30 and 31: 20 Figure 2.2: Prevalence of ecstas
Page 32 and 33: 22 19 years (Dunn et al., 2007). Th
Page 34 and 35: 24 The use of MDMA among police det
Page 36 and 37: 26 this survey is conducted with th
Page 38 and 39: 28 models might be useful. On the o
Page 40 and 41: 30 the questionnaire in February 20
Page 42 and 43: 32 2.5 Summary According to the lat
Page 44 and 45: 34 anxiety, agitation, tremor, teet
Page 46 and 47: 36 may be stronger than the link wi
Page 48 and 49: 38 Srisurapanot and colleagues (200
Page 50 and 51: 40 Psychiatric problems appear to o
Page 52 and 53: 42 In 2005, there was a total of 68
Page 54 and 55: 44 The most recent EDRS survey foun
Page 56 and 57: 46 same reasons they use the drugs
Page 58 and 59: 48 Shoptaw and Reback (2007) review
Page 60 and 61: 50 It has also been speculated that
Page 62 and 63: 52 Parental ATS use In addition to
Page 64 and 65: 54 The Minnesota Department of Heal
Page 66 and 67: 56 Chapter 4: Prevention and Harm R
Page 68 and 69: 58 should cover the full range of d
Page 70 and 71: 60 specific drug (Spoth et al., 200
Page 72 and 73: 62 be applied regularly and systema
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64 Strategies targeting vulnerable
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66 Examples of particular periods t
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68 At-risk workplaces There is incr
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70 The consultation forum with Abor
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72 young people was noted in the su
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74 and/or others); mental health ef
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76 of the fact that frequently peop
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78 Sexual risk behaviour is a furth
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80 • Cleaning up; • Transport o
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82 Assessing the risks of illicitly
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84 4.4 Challenges of applying preve
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86 but a number of studies are now
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88 The pack included a video, train
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90 Chapter 5: Treatment and Service
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92 to the occurrence of amphetamine
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94 In relation to the need for spec
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96 These studies replicate earlier
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98 addressed not only the drug user
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100 Research conducted in the subse
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102 users, data that may be general
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104 that limit brain exposure to me
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106 only significant difference was
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108 through the use of antipsychoti
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110 to develop the capacity of the
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112 It was also suggested that link
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114 as new evidence emerges. New ps
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116 border in 2000 (McKetin et al.,
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118 Table 6.1: Number of clandestin
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120 Table 6.2: Examples of domestic
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122 Tasmania In 2004, strengthened
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124 Recommendations from the consul
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126 Although there are a number of
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128 illegal drugs. When incarcerate
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130 heroin) (Payne et al., 2007). I
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132 Some examples of diversion prog
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134 Other research has compared psy
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136 Rehabilitation in Corrections T
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138 Synthetic Drugs measure will im
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140 • Stealing from motor vehicle
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142 criminal offences There continu
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144 • Increase international coll
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146 • Ensuring offence and penalt
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148 Law enforcement agencies are pl
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150 Appendix 1 National consultatio
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152 Appendix 2 Written submissions
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154 Australian Institute of Health
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156 Bowers, J. & Johnson, S. (2003)
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158 Crits-Christoph, P., Siqueland,
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160 Drug & Alcohol Services South A
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162 Halkitis, P.N., Parsons, J.T.,
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164 Hull, P., Rawstorne, P., Zablot
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166 Leek, L., Seneque, D., & Ward,
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168 McKetin, R., McLaren, J., Kelly
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170 NSW Health (2006). Psychostimul
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172 Ressler, K.J., & Nemeroff, C.B.
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174 Small, W., Kerr, T., Charette,
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176 United Nations Office for Drug
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178
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National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant Strategy Background Paper

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