National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant Strategy Background Paper

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134 Other research has compared psychological disorders among prisoners in comparison to community samples. Butler and colleagues (2006) compared data obtained from 916 prisoners admitted into the NSW correctional system with an Australian <strong>National</strong> Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. After controlling for demographic differences between the samples, the 12-month prevalence of any psychiatric illness within the previous year was 80% in prisoners and 31% in the community. The most common disorders among the prisoner sample were symptoms of psychosis, substance use disorders and personality disorders. White and colleagues (2006) specifically investigated psychosis in a sample of 621 remandees at a Queensland centre and 61 screened positive for a psychotic disorder (9.8%). Of this sample, 80% were dependent on alcohol, cannabis or amphetamine, and 81% were receiving no treatment at the time of their offence. Some examples of current initiatives that address health issues for prison populations include: • Custodial Health and Alcohol & Drug Nurses Project (CHAD) is an alcohol and drug treatment support service for prisoners in police cells across Victoria. CHAD nurses undertake health assessments of detainees within one working day of incarceration and can offer drug treatment or substitute pharmacotherapy for those experiencing substance withdrawal while in detention; • Adelaide City Watch House Community Nursing Service places nurses within the Adelaide City Watch House to provide a number of interventions to detainees and to support police; • SMART Recovery, Drug and Alcohol Addictions Program and associated Relapse Prevention Program, and the Criminal Conduct and Substance Abuse Treatment Program are CBT based programs provided through the NSW Department of Corrective Services; and • ‘Sisters Inside’ is an organisation providing programs and support for incarcerated women. Juvenile justice services The overall incarceration rate for juveniles has declined 58% from 65 to 27 per 100,000 from 1981 to 2005 (Australian Institute of Criminology, 2006). The Drug Use Careers of Offenders (DUCO) survey was conducted with a sample of 371 young offenders aged between 11 and 17 years who were remanded in or sentenced to detention in 2004 (Prichard & Payne, 2005). In terms of drug use, almost all juvenile detainees reported lifetime use of alcohol or cannabis, and half reported amphetamine use. In the six months prior to detention, 63% reported using cannabis on a regular basis and 20% reported regular amphetamine use. The links between drugs and crime were measured in a number of ways in this study and the results suggested that the majority of juveniles did not commence drug use until after their first offence; however two thirds reported being intoxicated (either drunk on alcohol or high on drugs) at the time of committing the offence/s for which they were now in detention; and the majority of juveniles reported that drug use had a definite impact on their lifetime criminal offending behaviour. Diversion initiatives with juvenile offenders can be traced back to the establishment in the late 19th century of the first children’s court, which was designed to redirect offending
135 children away from punitive adult courts into a more informal and more benign system which could better meet their need for specialist guidance and treatment (Seymour, 1988). Currently, most states and territories include ‘victim–offender conferencing’ as part of juvenile justice, which typically involve the victim, the young offender and representatives from the criminal justice system. The aim is to develop a negotiated response to the crime with the young person taking responsibility for the offence, and for the needs of both the victim and the young person to be heard and met (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2007). Conferences may be held at a number of stages of the juvenile justice process and are administered variously by the police, courts or juvenile justice department. The range of juvenile justice services is outlined in Table 6.6. Discussions about juvenile justice issues during consultations focused on support and treatment in the case of ATS, with an emphasis on the need to determine whether offences committed had an underlying drug element. Again, as with the case of many issues around juvenile offending, access to diversion and treatment options depend on geographic location. Those in rural areas commented that offending juveniles had to be transferred away and removed from their families as there are no holding facilities available locally. Table 6.6: Range of juvenile justice outcomes and services available by state and territory, June 2006 Juvenile justice outcomes and services NSW VIC QLD WA SA TAS NT ACT Pre-court pre-sentence diversionary outcomes Informal caution/warning Formal caution Conferencing Does not involve juvenile justice department Discharge Fine Obligation without supervision May involve juvenile justice department Good behaviour bond – – Bail/pre-sentence support and supervision – Conferencing – Community-based supervision (probation) Community service Suspended detention – – Home detention – – – – * – – Custodial remand Detention Supervised release from detention – Note: Shaded cells indicate items that are within NMDS scope and for which data are collected in the NMDS. Other ticked cells indicate juvenile justice outcomes and services that the states and territories offer, but which are outside the scope of the NMDS. * Indicates items which are within NMDS scope but for which data are unavailable for the NMDS. Source: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2007) Juvenile justice in Australia 2005-06, Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
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National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant
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ii Acknowledgments This research wo
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iv Table of contents Acknowledgemen
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vi List of tables Table 1.1: Amphet
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viii
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2 The NDS framework and the Law Enf
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4 Table 1.1: Amphetamine-type stimu
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6 particularly on the Pacific Coast
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8 Figure 1.1: MDMA (ecstasy) tablet
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10 a 10-year period. While some of
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12 Figure 1.4: Forms of methampheta
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14 Figure 1.5: Median purity of met
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16 As noted, the route of administr
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18 Chapter 2: Setting the Context T
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20 Figure 2.2: Prevalence of ecstas
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22 19 years (Dunn et al., 2007). Th
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24 The use of MDMA among police det
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26 this survey is conducted with th
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28 models might be useful. On the o
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30 the questionnaire in February 20
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32 2.5 Summary According to the lat
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34 anxiety, agitation, tremor, teet
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36 may be stronger than the link wi
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38 Srisurapanot and colleagues (200
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40 Psychiatric problems appear to o
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42 In 2005, there was a total of 68
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44 The most recent EDRS survey foun
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46 same reasons they use the drugs
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48 Shoptaw and Reback (2007) review
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50 It has also been speculated that
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52 Parental ATS use In addition to
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54 The Minnesota Department of Heal
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56 Chapter 4: Prevention and Harm R
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58 should cover the full range of d
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60 specific drug (Spoth et al., 200
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62 be applied regularly and systema
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64 Strategies targeting vulnerable
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66 Examples of particular periods t
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68 At-risk workplaces There is incr
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70 The consultation forum with Abor
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72 young people was noted in the su
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74 and/or others); mental health ef
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76 of the fact that frequently peop
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78 Sexual risk behaviour is a furth
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80 • Cleaning up; • Transport o
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82 Assessing the risks of illicitly
Page 94 and 95: 84 4.4 Challenges of applying preve
Page 96 and 97: 86 but a number of studies are now
Page 98 and 99: 88 The pack included a video, train
Page 100 and 101: 90 Chapter 5: Treatment and Service
Page 102 and 103: 92 to the occurrence of amphetamine
Page 104 and 105: 94 In relation to the need for spec
Page 106 and 107: 96 These studies replicate earlier
Page 108 and 109: 98 addressed not only the drug user
Page 110 and 111: 100 Research conducted in the subse
Page 112 and 113: 102 users, data that may be general
Page 114 and 115: 104 that limit brain exposure to me
Page 116 and 117: 106 only significant difference was
Page 118 and 119: 108 through the use of antipsychoti
Page 120 and 121: 110 to develop the capacity of the
Page 122 and 123: 112 It was also suggested that link
Page 124 and 125: 114 as new evidence emerges. New ps
Page 126 and 127: 116 border in 2000 (McKetin et al.,
Page 128 and 129: 118 Table 6.1: Number of clandestin
Page 130 and 131: 120 Table 6.2: Examples of domestic
Page 132 and 133: 122 Tasmania In 2004, strengthened
Page 134 and 135: 124 Recommendations from the consul
Page 136 and 137: 126 Although there are a number of
Page 138 and 139: 128 illegal drugs. When incarcerate
Page 140 and 141: 130 heroin) (Payne et al., 2007). I
Page 142 and 143: 132 Some examples of diversion prog
Page 146 and 147: 136 Rehabilitation in Corrections T
Page 148 and 149: 138 Synthetic Drugs measure will im
Page 150 and 151: 140 • Stealing from motor vehicle
Page 152 and 153: 142 criminal offences There continu
Page 154 and 155: 144 • Increase international coll
Page 156 and 157: 146 • Ensuring offence and penalt
Page 158 and 159: 148 Law enforcement agencies are pl
Page 160 and 161: 150 Appendix 1 National consultatio
Page 162 and 163: 152 Appendix 2 Written submissions
Page 164 and 165: 154 Australian Institute of Health
Page 166 and 167: 156 Bowers, J. & Johnson, S. (2003)
Page 168 and 169: 158 Crits-Christoph, P., Siqueland,
Page 170 and 171: 160 Drug & Alcohol Services South A
Page 172 and 173: 162 Halkitis, P.N., Parsons, J.T.,
Page 174 and 175: 164 Hull, P., Rawstorne, P., Zablot
Page 176 and 177: 166 Leek, L., Seneque, D., & Ward,
Page 178 and 179: 168 McKetin, R., McLaren, J., Kelly
Page 180 and 181: 170 NSW Health (2006). Psychostimul
Page 182 and 183: 172 Ressler, K.J., & Nemeroff, C.B.
Page 184 and 185: 174 Small, W., Kerr, T., Charette,
Page 186 and 187: 176 United Nations Office for Drug
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Page 190: 180
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