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THE FABULOUS DESTINY OF FATTY ACIDS DIETARY FATTY ACIDS FOR DAIRY COWS Usually fat compromises less than 5 % of the ruminant diet even though ruminants mainly depend on non-glucose metabolites for their energy provision (Palmquist and Jenkins, 1980). As reviewed by Palmquist and Jenkins (1980), fat has been supplemented to dairy cows as early as the first decade of the 20 th century, but at that moment they were found not beneficial on milk and fat yield (Kellner, 1907). Between late 1920’s and the mid 1940‘s, the first positive effects of fat supplementation on milk production were described when increasing the fat content of concentrates from 1-3% to 4-7% (Maynard et al., 1940; Loosli et al., 1944; Lucas and Loosli, 1944). Observations in 1960’s showing a decreased fiber digestibility and a rather limited superiority of fat (mainly vegetable oils) in terms of energy contribution when compared to cereal grains, decreased the support for fat inclusion in dairy rations (Warner, 1960). As from the early 80’s the steeply increased potential to reach great milk yields required the inclusion of higher amounts of digestible energy in the rations of lactating cows (Palmquist and Jenkins, 1980). Net Energy for Lactation (NEL) of rolled barley grain and tallow are estimated at 1.86 and 4.53 Mcal/kg DM, respectively (NRC, 2001). Increasing the starch intake by the cows is limited due to the negative effects of excessive grain on rumen health (Chamberlain and Wilkinson, 1996), which has led to a renewed interest in the use of fat to increase the energy intake by the cow. A wide variety of fats and oils have since then been used in dairy rations. Oils are not often used in their free form and most commonly fed as oilseeds (canola, cottonseed, soybeans, flaxseed; Drackley, 1999). Animal fats such as tallow and grease have been widely implemented but their use has been restricted in the European Union in order to stop the spread of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE; Woodgate and Van Der Veen, 2004). Furthermore, a wide variety of processed dry “inert” or “bypass” fats are nowadays commercially available. Fat as feed additive has historically gained interest beyond its energy content. As reported by Santos et al. (2008), Burr and Burr described a new disease in rats fed a fat free diet as early as 1929. They observed that growing rats ceased growing and experienced more health problems and an irregular ovulatory pattern, which was reversed by re-introducing fats in the diet. The FA fraction of the fats was one year later identified as that part of the fats effective in curing and preventing the disease (Burr and 23
CHAPTER 2 Burr, 1930). Specific long chain fatty acids (LCFA), such as 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 and not fat per se, have ever since gained general recognition as being essential for reproduction in all mammalian species as well, being necessary precursors for metabolic regulation and cell membrane function (Staples and Thatcher, 2005). Table 2. Common fatty acids (adapted from FAO, 2008) Common Name Systematic Name Abbreviations Saturated Fatty Acids Butyric Acid Butanoic Acid 4:0 Caproic Acid Hexanoic Acid 6:0 Caprylic Acid Octanoic Acid 8:0 Capric Acid Decanoic Acid 10:0 Lauric Acid Dodecanoic Acid 12:0 Myristic Acid Tetradecanoic Acid 14:0 Palmitic Acid Hexadecanoic Acid 16:0 Stearic Acid (SA 1 ) Octadecanoic Acid 18:0 Arachidic Acid Eicosanoic Acid 20:0 Behenic Acid Docosanoic Acid 22:0 Lignoceric Acid Tetracosanoic Acid 24:0 Mono Unsaturated Fatty Acids Palmitoleic Acid cis-9-Hexadecenoic Acid 16:1 cis-9 Oleic Acid (OA) cis-9-Octadecenoic Acid 18:1 cis-9 Vaccenic Acid trans-11-Octadecenoic Acid 18:1 trans-11 Poly Unsaturated n-6 Fatty Acids Linoleic Acid (LA) cis-9, cis-12-Octadecadienoic Acid 18:2n-6 γ-Linolenic Acid cis-6, cis-9, cis-12-Octadecatrienoic Acid 18:3n-6 Arachidonic Acid (AA) cis-5, cis-8, cis-11, cis-14-Eicosatetraenoic Acid 20:4n-6 Poly Unsaturated n-3 Fatty Acids α-Linolenic Acid (LNA) cis-9, cis-12, cis-15-Octadecatrienoic Acid 18:3n-3 Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) cis-5, cis-8, cis-11, cis-14, cis-17-Eicosapentaenoic Acid 20:5n-3 Docosapentaenoic Acid (DPA) cis-7, cis-10, cis-13, cis-16, cis-19-Docosapentaenoic Acid 22:5n-3 Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) cis-4, cis-7, cis-10, cis-13, cis-16, cis-19-Docosahexaenoic Acid 22:6n-3 Conjugated Linoleic Acids Rumenic Acid cis-9, trans-11-Octadecadienoic Acid 18:2 cis-9, trans-11 trans-10, cis-12 CLA trans-10, cis-12-Octadecadienoic Acid 18:2 trans-10, cis-12 trans-7, cis-9 CLA trans-7, cis-9-Octadecadienoic Acid 18:2 trans-7, cis-9 1 Abbreviation key used in this thesis Typically, dairy cattle diets contain approximately 2% of LCFA, predominantly polyunsaturated (Staples et al., 1998). The main FA in most seed lipids is 18:2n-6, whereas 18:3n-3 predominates in most forage lipids (Palmquist and Jenkins, 1980). These FA cannot be synthesized by the mammalian cells as they lack desaturase enzymes to incorporate a double bond beyond the ninth carbon in the acyl chain (Wathes et al., 2007). Combined with the limited supply of UFA to the small intestine due to the extensive biohydrogenation in the rumen (Jenkins et al., 2008), UFA have been proposed by researchers to be included as nutraceuticals in the bovine diet, for 24
Page 1 and 2: Health and fertility challenges in
Page 3 and 4: Health and Fertility Challenges in
Page 6: TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ABBREVIAT
Page 10: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Modified from:
Page 13 and 14: CHAPTER 1 Table 1. List of bioactiv
Page 15 and 16: Milk production per lactation (kg)
Page 17 and 18: CHAPTER 1 availability in the diet
Page 19 and 20: CHAPTER 1 Chagas, L. M., J. J. Bass
Page 21 and 22: CHAPTER 1 Goff, J. P. and R. L. Hor
Page 23 and 24: CHAPTER 1 Lucy, M. C. 2008. Functio
Page 25: CHAPTER 1 UNPD. 2010. World populat
Page 30 and 31: THE FABULOUS DESTINY OF FATTY ACIDS
Page 38 and 39: Intestinal digestibility (%) THE FA
Page 64: AIMS
Page 70: HEALTH CHALLENGES IN HIGH YIELDING
Page 74: LACTATION CURVE ANALYSIS IN METABOL
Page 77 and 78: CHAPTER 4.1 and interrelationships
Page 79 and 80: CHAPTER 4.1 GmbH, Unterschleißheim
Page 81 and 82: CHAPTER 4.1 analysis, all animals w
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Survival distribution function CHAP
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Milk production (kg) CHAPTER 4.1 wa
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CHAPTER 4.1 Complicated twinning (T
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CHAPTER 4.1 Table 5. The effect of
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CHAPTER 4.1 In most studies a posit
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CHAPTER 4.1 reported a positive and
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CHAPTER 4.1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The au
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CHAPTER 4.1 Detilleux, J. C., Y. T.
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CHAPTER 4.1 Hosmer, D.W., and S. Le
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CHAPTER 4.1 Rajala-Schultz, P. J.,
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THE FATTY ACID PROFILE OF SUBCUTANE
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Fatty acid (g/100 g FA) Fatty acid
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THE USE OF DIETARY FATTY ACIDS DURI
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FEEDING MARINE ALGAE TO DAIRY COWS
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FEEDING OMEGA-6 AND OMEGA-3 FATTY A
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CHAPTER 5.2 breeding period reduced
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CHAPTER 5.2 More specifically, the
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CHAPTER 5.2 The Flemish Veterinary
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CHAPTER 5.2 of milk and BCS and FA
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CHAPTER 5.2 Table 3. Effect of diet
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CHAPTER 5.2 Figure 2 (previous page
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FAME (g/100g) FAME (g/100g) CHAPTER
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CHAPTER 5.2 prepartum period. At th
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CHAPTER 5.2 IMPLICATIONS FOR FERTIL
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CHAPTER 5.2 REFERENCES AbuGhazaleh,
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CHAPTER 5.2 supplementation on syst
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CHAPTER 5.2 Lucy, M. C., C. R. Stap
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CHAPTER 5.2 Petit, H. V. and C. Ben
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CHAPTER 5.2 Zachut, M., A. Arieli,
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MILK FAT SATURATION AND REPRODUCTIV
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Protein content (g/kg) Fat content
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Estimated CRFI MILK FAT SATURATION
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DIMFI (d) CVUFA % MILK FAT SATURATI
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DIMCONC (d) CVUFA (%) MILK FAT SATU
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GENERAL DISCUSSION The scope of the
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GENERAL DISCUSSION (Hogeveen, 2012)
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Milk Production (kg) Milk Productio
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GENERAL DISCUSSION First, researche
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GENERAL DISCUSSION FATTY ACID MOBIL
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Omental Fat Score GENERAL DISCUSSIO
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GENERAL DISCUSSION The main objecti
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GENERAL DISCUSSION Even though some
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GENERAL DISCUSSION Table 2. Overvie
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GENERAL DISCUSSION Figure 4. Fatty
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GENERAL DISCUSSION and 22:6n-3 were
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GENERAL DISCUSSION IMPLICATIONS FOR
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GENERAL DISCUSSION We found a nega
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GENERAL DISCUSSION fatty acid compo
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GENERAL DISCUSSION Castaneda-Gutier
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GENERAL DISCUSSION encapsulated (LE
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GENERAL DISCUSSION Friggens, N. C.,
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GENERAL DISCUSSION linoleic acid on
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GENERAL DISCUSSION Lucy, M. C., C.
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GENERAL DISCUSSION Nikkhah, A., J.
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GENERAL DISCUSSION Rajala, P. J. an
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GENERAL DISCUSSION Stengarde, L., K
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GENERAL DISCUSSION Wathes, D. C., D
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SUMMARY The time span during which
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SUMMARY correlation with PC2 was po
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SUMMARY reflected in CE and PL but
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SAMENVATTING
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SAMENVATTING Management Facilitiy).
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SAMENVATTING totale opbrengst als h
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SAMENVATTING van het OVZ-gehalte va
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CURRICULUM VITAE Miel Hostens werd
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BIBLIOGRAPHY INTERNATIONAL PAPERS D
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BIBLIOGRAPHY NATIONAL PAPERS Cools,
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Hostens, M., L. Peelma
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BIBLIOGRAPHY in early lactating dai
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DANKWOORD Misschien is het niet zo
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DANKWOORD Alle collega’s van de b
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DANKWOORD De medewerkers van Unifor
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DANKWOORD Via een intense samenwerk
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DANKWOORD doe. Ook al komt er af en
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