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Type ofprogrammeSupport for L1 Elite/folk PrimaryorientationSubermersion None Folk Language asproblemTransitionalTemporary, untildominant languageis masteredTypically folk Language as rightMaintenanceOne-way immersionTwo-way immersion/dualCommunitylanguage teachingHeritage languageeducationStrong, althoughmixed access toquality materialsand well-trainedteachersVaries, but L1 notdenigrated orthreatenedMixedTypically eliteLanguage as rightand resourceLanguage asresourceStrong Elite/folk Language asresourceStrong, particularlyat secondary levelPupils’ L1 is often adominant languageFolkElite/folkLanguage asresourceLanguage asresourceTable 1: Key features of bilingual education programmes (taken from Hall, Smithand Wicaksono, 2011) 1Historical and current aspects of bilingual education internationallyCanada is one of the most oft-cited examples of how to get bilingual educationright, principally known through the work of Jim Cummins (1984) and VirginiaCollier (1992; 1997). There is, however, a great danger of generalising the resultsfrom the successful Canadian language programs internationally. Much of theresearch coming from Canada does not deal with immigrant communities andCarder (2008) notes that the programmes to address the language needs ofimmigrants remain underdeveloped. The bilingual programmes known globallyfor their success concern two major international languages, namely English andFrench, so issues of status between the languages are less relevant. Bilingualeducation is part of a national ideology and there is mutual respect for homelanguage and culture. Additionally, it should be noted that it is optional, with arelatively homogeneous group of children, all at a similar level linguistically in theirL2, with enthusiastic teachers and parents of a mainly middle class background(Romaine, 1999: Baker, 2006). All of these factors must be taken into considerationwhen looking at the UK situation, with its diversity of languages, and social andpolitical differences.The Australian model only began to develop after 1971 with the establishmentof the Child Migrant Educational Policy (CMEP). The CMEP, despite being a deficitmodel, did lead to a move away from assimilation, unlike policies in the UK (Carder,2008). A push to educate bilingually, motivated by the country’s long-standing130 | UK Primary School