Reducing Ethnic Profiling in the European Union - Open Society ...

population would suggest, and that they were not stopped in disproportionatenumbers. 167 A study of eight locations (four related to pedestrian stops and four tovehicle stops) covered by the City of London Police again found that the availablepopulation was very different from the residential population. Researchers found thatthere was no disproportionality in stops on vehicles but some evidence of disproportionalityin stops of black pedestrians; they made up nine percent of the “available”population, but accounted for 13 percent of all stops. 168Observational studies have been controversial in the United Kingdom, on methodologicalgrounds with certain approaches and because some observational studieschallenge the conclusions of both quantitative and qualitative studies that consistentlyfind that ethnic minorities are disproportionately stopped and searched. The methodologyissues reflect the focus on areas of high stop-and-search use. Critics note that stopand search “hot spots” reflect police operational decision-making that may be influencedby stereotypes, thus establishing a self-perpetuating cycle whereby high crime ratesappear in police statistics because of higher intensity police actions in those areas,which then justifies further police action. But these issues also flag the need to conductobservational studies in areas where stop-and-search tactics are used to a lesser degree.Evidence from the London Borough of Lambeth shows that disproportionality is higherin areas where stop and search is used less frequently. 169Survey DataSurveys can provide both quantitative and qualitative information about different communities’encounters with law enforcement. Household and general population surveysare a standard instrument for measuring public experiences of crime and policing, andhave recently started to be used to address ethnic profiling. Survey data can focus solelyon ethnic profiling, or questions relevant to ethnic profiling can be introduced into abroader survey such as a victimization survey.A number of problems are attached to surveys, including the cost, issues of recall,and whether what is being reported is an accurate reflection of individuals’ own experienceor results from general perceptions of the group or communities’ experiencesof policing. Surveys on ethnic profiling also need to ensure that the sample enablescomparison between the experiences of different groups in population—both minoritygroups and the comparator majority population. Survey methods must assure that statisticallyvalid numbers of persons from target groups are interviewed.Regular victimization surveys are conducted throughout EU member states,although they do not generally include ethnic data. Such surveys commonly includequestions on victimization, crime reporting, satisfaction with law enforcementREDUCING ETHNIC PROFILING IN THE EUROPEAN UNION 91