Contents

CHAPTER 4: Observation 97FIGURE 4.1Flow diagram of observational methods.Observational MethodsDirect ObservationIndirect ObservationUnobrusive (Nonreactive) ObservationObservationwithoutIntervention(NaturalisticObservation)Observation withInterventionPhysical TracesArchival RecordsParticipantObservationStructuredObservationFieldExperimentDIRECT OBSERVATIONAL METHODSKey Concept• Direct observational methods can be classified as “observation withoutintervention” or “observation with intervention.”When observing behavior directly, researchers make a decision regardingthe extent to which they will intervene in the situation they observe. In thiscase, intervention refers to researchers’ efforts to change or create the contextfor observation. The extent of intervention varies on a continuum from none(observation without intervention) to intervention that involves carrying out anexperiment in a natural setting.Observation without Intervention• The goals of naturalistic observation are to describe behavior as it normallyoccurs and to examine relationships among variables.• Naturalistic observation helps to establish the external validity oflaboratory findings.• When ethical and moral considerations prevent experimental control,naturalistic observation is an important research strategy.Direct observation of behavior in a natural setting without any attempt by theobserver to intervene is frequently called naturalistic observation. An observerusing this method of observation acts as a passive recorder of events as they occurnaturally. Although it is not easy to define a natural setting precisely (see Bickman,1976), we can consider a natural setting one in which behavior ordinarily occursand that has not been arranged specifically for the purpose of observing behavior.For example, Matsumoto and Willingham (2006) observed athletes in the “natural”(for these athletes) setting of an Olympic judo competition. Box 4.1 describesrecent findings based on naturalistic observation within the field of ethology.