Contents

480 Subject IndexBlock randomizationadvantages of, 194–197, 232–233defined, 194independent groups designsand, 193–196repeated measures designsand, 232–233Calibration (instruments), 36CARE (Committee on AnimalResearch and Ethics), 80. Seealso RiskCase study (method)advantages, 285–288characteristics, 281–284defined, 282disadvantages, 288–290illustration, 283–284testimonials and, 290–291theory and, 285–287Categorical data. See Nominal scaleCausal inference (relationship)case studies and, 283, 288–289conditions for, 46–48correlation and, 46–48, 175–177, 377defined, 46–47experiments and, 47–48, 185–187internal validity and, 187natural groups designs and, 218,272–275plausible alternative causes, 46–47,187, 191, 289scientific method and, 46–48Ceiling (and floor) effect, 272Central tendency (defined), 355.See also Mean (average);Median, ModeChecklists, 117–118Chi-square test of contingency,173, 334Cleaning data, 351. See also Getting toknow the dataClever Hans, 30–32Clinical psychology, 16Codingarchival records and, 121–122content analysis and, 121–122data reduction and, 120defined, 120narrative records and, 120responses to questions, 173Cognitive psychology, 7Cohen’s d, 205, 358–359, 391, 406defined, 205Cohen’s f, 402–403Communication betweenexperimental groups, 319Communication in psychology,35–36, 348–349, 422–441.See also Reporting results;Research report writingComparison between two means,208, 371, 390, 393–396, 405. Seealso Confidence intervals; t-testComplete within-subjects design,230–235Complex (factorial) designs,250–276analysis of, 261–268, 410–414defined, 250describing, 250–251, 253–261example of, 251–253factorial combination, 250factorial design, 250interaction effect and, 250,258–259, 268–275, 411–414main effect and, 250, 253, 258–259,266–268, 413mixed design, 414–416no interaction and, 266–268, 413reporting results of, 416–417simple main effect and, 265,412–413theory testing and, 268–269,272–275three-factor, 260–261two-factor, 251, 410–416Computers. See also Internet researchcomputer revolution, 7data analysis and, 349development of psychologyand, 7survey research and, 152–154Concept, 34–36. See also ConstructConceptual replication, 214Confederate, 103, 106Confidence intervalsAPA on, 434complex designs and, 414correlation and, 377defined, 209, 360effect size and, 365independent groups designs and,209–210, 363–364, 366–371interpretation of, 209–210, 363, 365,369–370more than two independentmeans, 209–210, 366–371,404–407repeated measures designs and,243, 409–410, 418–420reporting, 434single mean and, 360–363statistical significance and, 209–210,365, 369–370two independent group meansand, 363–364two means in repeated measuresdesign and, 364–366Confidentiality, 67–68, 71–72Confirming what the data reveal,202, 347–348, 360–371, 384Confounding. See also Plausiblealternative causes; Threats tointernal validitydefined, 48, 187extraneous variables and, 196independent groups designsand, 193internal validity and, 187,314–318natural groups designs and, 218repeated measures designsand, 228–230threat to internal validity and,314–315Consistency, 38. See also ReliabilityConstructdefined, 35operational definition of, 35–36scientific method and, 34–36validity of, 165–167Construct validity, 165–167Contamination (theat to internalvalidity), 319, 330Content analysisdefined, 120steps in, 121–122Control, 30–33, 187, 312, 318. Seealso Control condition; ControltechniquesControl condition, 32–33, 187Control techniquesbalancing, 187, 191–193block randomization, 196–197counterbalancing, 230–239double-blind procedure, 201holding conditions constant, 189,191, 193manipulation and, 30–33, 187placebo control, 200–201single-subject (small-n) experimentand, 291Controlled-use (planned-use)traces, 108Convenience sampling, 144–145Convergent validity, 166, 185. Seealso Multimethod approach (tohypothesis testing)Correlationcausality and, 46–48, 175–177, 377coefficient, 125–126, 138, 173, 373,375–376confidence interval for, 377defined, 45, 125, 371illusory, 29linear trend and, 374–375negative, 125–126, 374–376nominal data and, 173observer reliability and, 125Pearson-Product Moment, 125–126,173, 374–376positive, 125–126, 374–376