Contents

120 PART II: Descriptive Methods• Content analysis is used to examine archival records and includes threesteps: identifying a relevant source, sampling sections from the source, andcoding units of analysis.Key ConceptKey ConceptKey ConceptAnalysis of Narrative Records Observational studies that use comprehensivenarrative records or archival records provide a wealth of information–sometimes piles and piles of papers, video and audio recordings. Once the dataare collected, how do researchers summarize all of this information? An importantstep in analyzing the content of narrative records is data reduction,the process of abstracting and summarizing behavioral data. In qualitative dataanalysis, researchers seek to provide a verbal summary of their observationsand to develop a theory that explains behavior in the narrative records (seeMiles & Huberman, 1994; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). In qualitative analysis, datareduction occurs when researchers verbally summarize information, identifythemes, categorize and group pieces of information, and record their own observationsabout the narrative records.Data reduction often involves the process of coding, which is the identificationof units of behavior or particular events according to specific criteria that arerelated to the goals of the study. For example, in a study of preschool children,McGrew (1972) developed coding schemes to classify 115 different patterns ofbehavior according to the body part involved, ranging from facial expressionssuch as bared teeth, grin face, and pucker face, to locomotion behaviors suchas gallop, crawl, run, skip, and step. Observers used the coding schemes toclassify these behavioral patterns while they watched videos of children in preschool.Data reduction in this way (i.e., from videos to coded behaviors) allowsresearchers to determine relationships between specific types of behavior andthe events that are antecedents of these behaviors. For example, McGrew foundthat children exhibit a “pout face” after losing a fight over a toy. McGrew alsostudied young chimpanzees and noted that these animals show a pout facewhen seeking reunion with their mother. Just after being frustrated (and oftenjust prior to weeping), children exhibited a “pucker face.” Interestingly, therewas no record of a pucker face in the nonhuman primates.Content Analysis of Archival Records As with narrative records, the amount ofdata obtained from archival records can be daunting, and the researcher’s firststep involves data reduction. In the simplest cases, only data reduction maybe necessary. For example, a simple tally of votes by legislators on a particularissue may quickly and effectively summarize data in a government record. Inmany cases, however, gleaning relevant data from an archival source can requirecareful procedures and relatively complex analysis of the source’s content.Content analysis can be generally defined as any objective coding techniquethat allows researchers to make inferences based on specific characteristics inarchival records (Holsti, 1969). Although content analysis is associated primarilywith written communications, it may be used with any form of communication,including television and radio programs, speeches, films, interviews, andInternet content (including text and e-mail messages, “tweets,” etc.). When televisionor radio broadcasts are studied, time is often used as a unit of quantitative