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426 PART V: Analyzing and Reporting ResearchGood writing, like good driving, is best done defensively. Assume that whatevercan be misunderstood, will be! To avoid these writing accidents, we offerthe following tips to consider before you begin writing.• KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE. If you assume your readers know morethan they actually do, you will leave them confused. If you underestimateyour readers, you risk boring them with unnecessary details. Either riskincreases the likelihood that what you have written will not be read. But ifyou must err, it is better to underestimate your readers. For example, whenyou prepare a research report in a psychology class, you might reasonablyassume that your intended audience is your instructor. Writing for yourinstructor might lead you to leave a lot out of your paper because, afterall, you assume your instructor knows all that anyway. It would probablybe better to consider students in another section of your research methodscourse as your audience. This might result in your including more detailthan necessary, but it will be easier for your instructor to help you learnto “edit out” the nonessential material than to “edit in” essential materialthat you have omitted. Whatever audience you choose, be sure to make theselection before you begin to write, and keep your audience in mind everystep of the way.• IDENTIFY YOUR PURPOSE. Journal articles fall within the generalcategory of expository writing. Webster’s Dictionary defines exposition as“discourse designed to convey information or explain what is difficult tounderstand.” The principal purposes of a journal article are to describe andto convince. You want first to describe what you have done and what youhave found and, second, to convince the reader that your interpretation ofthese results is an appropriate one.• WRITE CLEARLY. The foundation of good expository writing is clarityof thought and expression. As Cronbach (1992) commented, “It is carein writing that counts.” You will need to work and rework sentences inorder to achieve a smooth and logical flow of your ideas. As the PublicationManual notes (p. 65), “The prime objective of scientific reporting is clearcommunication.”• BE CONCISE. If you say only what needs to be said, you will achieveeconomy of expression. Short words and short sentences are easier forreaders to understand. The best way to eliminate wordiness is by editingyour own writing across successive drafts and asking others to edit draftsof your paper.• BE PRECISE. Precision in using language means choosing the right wordfor what you want to say. It requires choosing words that mean exactlywhat you intend them to mean. For example, in scientific psychology,belief is not the same as attitude; nor are sensations the same as feelings.• FOLLOW GRAMMATICAL RULES. Adherence to grammatical rulesis absolutely necessary for good writing because failure to do so distractsthe reader and can introduce ambiguity. It also makes you, the writer, lookbad and, as a consequence, can serve to weaken your credibility (and yourargument) with your reader.