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244 SMITHSONIAN ANNALS OF FLIGHT FIGURE 8.—Experimental construction of the cooling system of a 100,000-kg high-pressure combustion chamber. Summary Walter Dornberger appropriately wrote in his book V 2: "Man's technical progress does not come only from men with great ideas, but almost as frequently from those who first apply unshakable faith and tireless energy to an idea's materialization." 27 Besides patentable intellectual authorship, investigations of priority claims to technical inventions should consider two more achievements which are almost equivalent to mental conception but require such entirely different human talents that priority in all three phases of a forthcoming invention is seldom combined in one and the same engineer. The process of transforming the mental Conception Patent Hardware Testing concept of an invention into a design suitable for production represents a second step, and its successful solution also is an original accomplishment. The same holds true for the next step; to demonstrate successfully the manufactured hardware of a novel system by testing is also no routine work, but a pioneering feat. In technically defining these three steps, each has its own designation, namely "Research," "Development," and "Testing," which in turn require different skills from the technologist. Considering these facts, a timetable on priorities of the most important cooling methods for liquid rocket powerplants would, as far as is known, stand as follows: LIKELY PRIORITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF DYNAMIC, REGENERATIVE COOLING METHODS FOR LIQUID-FUEL ROCKETS Internal cooling Oberth 1923 nothing known Pohlmann 1938 Peenemunde team 1939 External surface cooling Tsiolkovskiy 1928 nothing known Walter Riedel and Arthur Rudolph winter 1932 (or perhaps spring 1931) Walter Riedel, von Braun, Dornberger 21 December 1932 External forcedflow cooling Sanger 7 February 1934 Sanger 9 February 1935 Sanger 20 March 1934 Sanger 7 May 1934 Combined regenerative cooling with steam Sanger 9 May 1934 Sanger 25 October 1938 Sanger August 1940 (probably earlier) Sanger 18 February 1941
NUMBER 10 The development of a successful cooling method for the liquid propulsion systems of space rockets was lengthy and troublesome. In the first place, most of the senior rocket pioneers took somewhat amateurish approaches, aiming more or less at short-duration demonstration flights of their small rockets. Naturally, they were mostly interested in rocket flight behavior or stability, guidance, and mass properties, whereas the thrustor, if considered at all, was thought to be a necessary but secondary obligation. Powerplants of the past remained mostly anonymous, whereas rocket stages received from their fathers the finest names of fantasy. If the pioneers dealt with powerplant problems at all, they concentrated on, propellant feeding, atomization, and conditioning. Very few recognized the fundamental importance of cooling for the development of a ground-tested rocket powerplant; most inventors started to take care of cooling problems only after there was no other way out. For example, in the November-December 1929 issue of Die Rakete (The Rocket), certainly in selfcriticism, it is stated: "Up to the end of 1928, the term heat transfer hardly exists in the literature on space travel:" From this insight, however, no conclusions result as to cooling methods related to the heat transfer from combustion gas to chamber wall; only those heat fluxes between combustion gas and atomized liquid important for propellant conditioning are considered. It is amazing how little information on cooling methods is contained in the old 1932 test reports; this type of information is more or less accidentally mentioned and then only in subordinate sentences. This is true even with Goddard, who in his famous papers "A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes' (1919) 28 and "Liquid Propellant Rocket Development" (1936) 20 does not even mention cooling methods for liquid rocket engines. His first treatments of cooling methods are found in the U.S. patents 2,016,921, 8 October 1935, "Means for Cooling Combustion Chambers," and 2,122,521, 5 July 1938, "Cooling Jacket Construction." In his early layouts, the pioneer of spaceflight technology, K.E. Tsiolkovskiy, also assessed the dangers to the outer skin of his rocket from aerodynamic heating as clearly more important than the still neglected risks of an uncooled rocket engine. It took him 43 years—from 1885 until 1928—until he published a rocket design indeed embodying at 245 the rame time dynamically and regeneratively cooled combustion chambers. The Swiss researcher Josef Stemmer, perhaps somewhat unjustly neglected, is an exception; with his privately financed ground and flight tests, starting in 1934 (somewhat later than but certainly independent of Sanger), he used force-flow cooling for models of combustion chambers and rockets. NOTES To Ruth von Saurma, of the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center Plans and Resources Control Office, and to Hans G. Paul, chief of the MSFC Astronautics Laboratory Propulsion and Thermodynamics Division, the editors express gratitude for their assistance in checking and revising the translation of this paper. Throughout, the abbreviation "at" has been translated as atm (atmospheres) and atii as atm abs (atmospheres absolute (excess) pressure). PS is understood to equal 0.9863 hp, equals 0.735 kw. 1. Leipzig: Verlag Hachmeister & Thai, 1932. 2. H. Oberth, Die Rakete zu den Planetenraiimen [The Rocket into Interplanetary Space] (Munich and Berlin: R. Oldenbourg, 1923), p. 27. 3. Ibid., pp. 53-54; and Oberth, Wege zur Raumschiffahrt [Methods of Space Travel] (Munich and Berlin: R. Oldenbourg, 1929), pp. 241-42. 4. Ibid., p. 5. 5. Ibid., p. 5. 6. R. Nebel, Raketenflug [Rocket Flight] Mitteilungsblatt des Raketenflugplatzes Berlin Nr. 7, Raketenflugplatz Berlin, December 1932, pp. 27-28. 7. Max Valier, Raketenfahrt [Rocket Journey] (Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 1930). 8. W. H. J. Reidel, "Ein Kapitel Raketengeschichte der neueren Zeit." Weltraumfahrt, no. 3, July 1953. 9. Op. cit. (note 8). 10. W. Ley, Rockets, Missiles, and Men in Space (New York: The Viking Press, 1968), ed. 3, p. 134. 11. Op. cit., note 6, pp. 16-17. 12. Op. cit., note 10, pp. 126-28. 13. W. Dornberger, V2—der Schuss ins Weltall [V2—The Shot into Space] (Esslingen: Bechtle-Verlag, 1952), p. 26. 14. Werner Briigel, Manner der Rakete [Rocket Men] (Leipzig: Hachmeister & Thai, 1933), p. 129. 15. Op. cit. (note 6), p. 28. 16. Op. cit. (note 14). 17. Ibid. 18. Ley, op. cit. (note 10), p. 146. 19. In Briigel, Manner der Rakete (see note 14). 20. Alexander Boris Scherschewsky, Die Rakete fiir Fahrt und Flug (Berlin: C. J. E. Volckmann, 1928), p. 106. 21. Ley, Rockets, The Future of Travel beyond the Stratosphere (New York: The Viking Press, 1944), p. 157. 22. Op. cit. (note 13), p. 26. 23. Ibid., pp. 31-32. 24. Ibid., pp. 60-61. 25. See note 6.
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