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TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – October 2012, volume 11 Issue 4 private tutoring tuition, had a more positive learning attitude, had higher family incomes, had leadership from the principal, and had less creative teaching efforts (Table 3). Lastly, high school students tended to earn higher academic achievements when they used less ICT for information communication, spent fewer hours studying e-learning materials, had a more positive learning attitude, had more weekly study hours, had higher self-directed learning attitudes, had teachers with higher education levels, had higher family incomes, and had more teacher efforts to improve teaching (Table 4). In addition, four variables were significant for the achievements at all school levels: 1) parent education level, 2) private tutoring expenditure, 3) learning attitude, and 4) family income. In addition, teachers’ efforts for education improvement were also significant as a school-process variable in both middle and high schools. Principal’s leadership was only significant at the middle school level. DISCUSSION ICT is being widely used in all school-levels because it enables students to engage in self-directed learning by providing individualized content, overcoming some limitations of traditional teaching methods. This study conducted an HLM analysis to rigorously examine the exclusive impacts of ICT use on mathematic achievements. This study examined the exclusive impacts of ICT by identifying the variance explained by ICT use among overall achievements. The exclusive explained variance of ICT on mathematic achievements was 4.34% at the elementary school level, 5.96% for the middle school level, and 8.68% at the high school level. A previous study on school impacts reported that the explained variance of ICT use was 29% at the middle school level and 36% at the high school level when combining all variables both at the student-level and school-level (Kim et al., 2010). However, the previous study is limited in that it did not separate ICT use from other background and process variables. In fact, Kim et al. (2010) incorporated ICT use variables into either weekly study time variables in the student-level or resources in the school-level; thus, it was not possible to differentiate their distinctive effects. The present study shows that ICT use has distinctive impacts on achievement. In addition, when measuring the ICT effectiveness at two-levels, the explained variance of ICT use on achievement in terms of school-level was higher than for the student-level. This implies that school-level support is more important than students' ICT-related characteristics when using ICT. School-level support is essential in increasing ICT learning impacts, such as teachers’ efforts to improve education and principals' leadership. The results showed that the use of ICT technologies for communication had negative impacts on achievement. This implies that using excessive email, chatting, and blogs can decrease mathematic achievements, and thus, these ICT technologies should be used carefully in education. In terms of ICT literacy, students’ abilities in information processing have significant impact on achievements. Students need to develop a higher cognitive ability to analyze and process information rather than an ability to merely collect and communicate information. Future ICT literacy education should emphasize information analysis and information processing. Interestingly, ICT self-efficacy explained more portions in the overall variance of mathematic achievement than did the frequency of ICT use. These results are consistent with a previous study in the impacts of ICT use, which demonstrated that ICT use itself did not affect academic achievement at schools (Aristovnik, 2012; Cox & Marshall, 2007; Shaikh, & Khoja, 2011). The ICT use itself is not a proximal variable that affect student performance such as their abilities or teaching-learning materials (Wittwer & Senkbeil, 2008). Thus, future ICT literacy education should take into account the incorporation of affective elements that help students to increase their self-confidence with suitable teaching and learning strategies. Lastly, ICT explains more of the overall variance in achievement in high schools than in middle- or elementary schools. High school students might use more ICT, such as e-learning or online-tutoring and, as a result, benefit more from using ICT than middle school or elementary school students. Given that ICT is used differently according to school-levels, different educational policies are needed to suitably increase the effectiveness of ICT at each school level. REFERENCES Aristovnik, A. (2012). The impact of ICT on educational performance and its efficiency in selected EU and OECD countries: a non-parametric analysis, The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 11(3).144-152. Cox. M., & Marshall, G. (2007). Effects of ICT: Do we know what we should know?, Educational and Information Technology Journal, 12, 59-70. Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 139
TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – October 2012, volume 11 Issue 4 Fuchs, T., & Woessmann, L. (2004). Computers and student learning: Bivariate and multivariate evidence on the availability and use of computers at home and at school, CESifo Working Paper, No. 1321. November Munich. Hermans, R., Tondeur, J., van Braak, J., & Valcke, M. (2008). The impact of primary school teachers’ educational beliefs on the classroom use of computers. Computers & Education, 51(4), 1499-1509. Kim, M., Song, K., & Huh, Y. (2010). The examination of the variables related to elementary, middle school, and high school students’ academic achievement: A comparison of high and low group at each school-level. A symposium on 2010 National school achievement test and college entrance test, Ministry of Education and Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation. Kim, Y., Sohn, Y., Kim, H., Song, S., Moon, D., & Kim, S. (2003). A study on the evaluation of teachers’ ICT use literacy, Korea Educational Research Information Service Research Paper CR 2003-6. Kim, H., Seo, J., & Park, H. (2008). The impact of ICT use on students’ academic performance based on PISA 2006 Korean Data, The Journal of Korean Education, 35(4). 107-129. Kulik, J. A. (1991). Meta-analysis studies of finding on computer-based instruction, In E. L. Baker, & H. F. O’Neil. Technology assessment in education and training, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Leuven, E., Lindahl, M., Oosterbeek, H., & Webbink, D. (2004). The effects of extra funding for disadvantaged pupils on achievement, IZA Discussion paper. NO. 1122. Boon: Institute for the Study of Labor. Newhouse, C. P. (2002). Literature review: The impact of ICT on learning and teaching. Specialist Educational Services. Path, Western Australia. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2008). Are students ready for a technology-rich world? what pisa studies tell us. Paris: OECD. Park, H., Kim, W., Baek, S., Soh, K., Shin, J., Cho, S., Kim, J., & Lee, W. (2010). Research design and basic analysis for Seoul education longitudinal study. Seoul City Education Ministry Research Paper, Seoul Education 2010-42. Selim, H. M. (2007). Critical success factors for e-learning acceptance: Confirmatory factor models. Computer & Education, 49(2), 396-413. Shaikh, Z., A., & Khoja, S. A. (2011). Role of ICT in shaping the future of Pakistani higher education system. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 10(1), 149-161. Wittwer, J., & Senkbeil, M.(2008). Students' computer use at home related to their mathematical performance at school? Computer & Education, 50, 1588-1577. Youssef A. B., & Dahmani M. (2008). The impact of ICT on student performance in higher education: Direct effects, indirect effects, and organizational change. Revista de Universidad y Sociedad del Conocimiento, 5(1), 45-56. Yusuf, M. O., & Afolabi, A. O. (2010). Effects of computer assisted instruction (cai) on secondary school students’ performance in biology. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 9(1), 62-69. Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 140
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