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TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – October 2012, volume 11 Issue 4 Based on the results listed in Table 4, the between-groups comparisons were conducted. Those containing only two categories of variables, such as PC ownership and nationality, were examined using independent sample ttests, whereas those containing more than two categories, such as age and education, were tested using one-way- ANOVA. The t-tests revealed that the difference in the anxiety level of the Taiwanese women before and after the course decreased more than that of the non-Taiwanese women (t = 1.981, p < 0.05). As for PC ownership, there were significant differences in anxiety (t = 2.107, p < 0.05) after the course. Those who owned a computer showed a greater reduction in their level of anxiety (t = 2.523, p < 0.05) than those who did not. In addition, their perceptions of usefulness (t = 2.597, p < 0.05) also decreased less than those who did not own a computer. The results of one-way ANOVA indicate that age and perception of usefulness after the course had a significant difference (F(3,171) = 3.665, p < 0.05), while for education level and before-class anxiety, differences existed between the groups (F(3,171) = 3.035, p < 0.05). The post hoc LSD test was adopted to further examine the differences of these significant categories. As Table 5 discloses, the anxiety of the elementary school and below group was higher than that of the senior high school (p < 0.05) and junior college and above groups (p < 0.01) before the course. Table 6 indicates that after the course the younger than 40 group had more positive perceptions of usefulness than the 50-59-year-old group (p < 0.05), and was also more positive than the over 59-year-old group (p < 0.01), while the 40-49 group was more positive than the over 59-year-old group (p < 0.05). Table 5. Post Hoc LSD test for differences between education groups on anxiety before the training Dependent MD Std. Variable (I) Education (J) Education (I-J) Error p-value Anxiety (before training) Elementary school and below Junior high school Senior high school -0.424 -0.445 0.239 0.078 0.211 0.037* Junior college and above -0.700 0.235 0.003** Junior high school Senior high school -0.021 0.154 0.892 *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 Junior college and above -0.275 0.185 0.138 Senior high school Junior college and above -0.254 0.147 0.086 Table 6. Post Hoc LSD test for differences between age groups on usefulness after the training Dependent MD Std. Variable (I) Age (J) Age (I-J) Error p-value Usefulness 59 0.516 0.185 0.006** 40-49 50-59 0.202 0.113 0.075 Notes: *p
TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – October 2012, volume 11 Issue 4 elementary school level of education, stated in the interview, “I didn’t study much during my childhood, but I feel happy I can still learn something.” Another fact that influences women’s anxiety is nationality, which showed no significant differences before training, but after training, the Taiwanese women’s anxiety reduced more significantly than that of the non-Taiwanese women. It is possible that as the course was designed for Taiwanese learners, the non-Taiwanese learners did not benefit as much in the aspect of reducing anxious feelings. In addition, the cultural and language differences might have also accounted for a portion of the difficulty. For example, the phonetic input method, a commonly used method, was used to type Chinese characters in the course, whereas the learners from Mainland China were only familiar with the spelling system to input characters. In the computer communication lesson, MSN was used to teach the learners instant communication skills, but learners from China were more accustomed to using QQ. “They wanted to use QQ rather than MSN, and there’s a problem to teach them data input” said TA1. PC ownership influenced the women’s anxiety levels and their feelings of usefulness. There were no differences before the training between those who had a computer and those who did not. However, the feelings of anxiety and usefulness of the women without computers were obviously lower than for those who owned a computer after the training. Four of the TAs said in the interview that they noticed that the PC owner group would practice at home and would ask their family if they had problems. For example, TA3 confirmed that some of the women she taught would ask their children if they forgot something. The TAs felt that the handouts could help the learners because they could take notes so they could practice at home by themselves. Several women (e.g., W13, W14, and W15) reportedly practiced at home using their handouts if they did not have sufficient time in class to do it. However, for those who did not have a computer at home, TA10 commented, “They would keep asking about the problem again and again” in class. Based on the classroom observations, there was only limited interaction between the women. However, they gave feedback that they received a great deal of help from their TAs, such as, “The TA’s help was really useful” and “We didn’t feel pressure because the TA was friendly.” In the training, one TA was provided for every six or so women, but it is hoped that this ratio could be improved, so that the TAs could help fix any problems immediately. “Even though the TA was nice, it would be better if two students shared one TA” said W18. The TAs reportedly also felt that they learned a great deal from the tutoring experiences, particularly in the aspect of increasing their patience. “I should be very patient because they often asked me the same question again and again. I had to help them review and practice many times. I became very patient and now have more interaction with my own family. In the past, my mom would ask me questions sometimes, but I didn’t help her. After this program, I have a better relationship with my mom and she also thinks it is good for me.” This shows the effect of Intergenerational Learning, as it provides a chance to let younger people help older people to learn about computers and to learn and grow together. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Based on the study findings, we found that the women’s computer attitudes were influenced by their computer training, including reducing anxiety and their perceptions of usefulness, and increasing liking. In the discussion of changing women’s computer attitudes, some researchers (e.g., Hilbert, 2011; Nakatani & Miyamoto, 2006) argue that working women have better attitudes, but this was not supported in the current study. The factors that influenced the attitudes of our participants were age, education level, nationality, and PC ownership. Before the training, only lower education level women had higher anxiety. Most of the influences took effect after the computer training. After the training, younger women and those who owned a computer increased their perceptions of usefulness of computers; non-Taiwanese women increased their anxiety, while women who owned computers reduced their anxiety. This indicates that the experience of learning about computers can influence women's computer attitudes in various ways. Therefore, we should include computer learning experience as a factor in the future research, and focus on the needs of different groups of women. To decrease their learning difficulties, the following suggestions are provided. 1. Wong, Chai and Gao (2011) pointed out that non-alphabetic languages such as Chinese are more complicated to key in, including switching modes and phonetic vs. character selection, etc. The results of this study reveal that older women and women with lower education levels tend not to be good at phonetics and Chinese data input, so these became their biggest challenges and they needed extra help. For those who have difficulties in data input, using different types of input approaches is suggested, such as writing characters directly on a writing pad or keying in the phonetics of the desired characters. 2. Older women also need to be aware of the problem of physiological degeneration, especially the inconvenience caused by bad eyesight. For these women, it is suggested that TAs could assist individual learners according to their various needs. For example, accessibility settings introduced by Jacko (2005) such as magnifiers, text-to-speech utilities, on-screen keyboards and high contrast, could be employed. Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 184
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