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TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – October 2012, volume 11 Issue 4 THE QUESTIONNAIRE OF LIFESTYLE CHANGE IN REGARD TO PROBLEMATIC INTERNET USE: FACTOR STRUCTURE AND CONCURRENT AND CROSS-YEAR PREDICTIVE UTILITIES Yu-Chen Yeh Institute of Education, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan yuchen.ie97g@g2.nctu.edu.tw Sunny S. J. Lin* Institute of Education, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan sunnylin.nctu@gmail.com Yin-Hsing Tseng Department of Counseling, National Chiayi University, Taiwan ytseng@mail.ncyu.edu.tw Fang-Ming Hwang Department of Education, National Chiayi University, Taiwan fmh@mail.ncyu.edu.tw ABSTRACT This study constructed a questionnaire, named “Lifestyle Change in Regard to Problematic Internet Use (LC-PIU),” for helping school psychologists detect early indications of PIU-related lifestyle changes in university populations. Our focus is on all university students who use the Internet, not users who already show dependent symptoms. The lifestyles that we concerned include physical/social activities and dietary/sleep patterns that are notable consequences of excessive Internet use (Lam et al., 2009; Choi et al., 2009). With 708 university students recruited in 2009 (Time 1), we tested the factor structure of LC-PIU and determined the concurrent and cross-year predictive utilities with the same participants in 2010 (Time 2). The 2009-sample was randomly split into two independent subsamples for calibration and validation using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. The calibration and validation results, along with convergent and discriminant tests, confirmed that the LC-PIU is composed of five distinct subscales: problematic Internet use, physical activity change, social activity change, dietary pattern change, and sleep pattern change. All Time-1 LC-PIU subscores were positively correlated with depression, loneliness, and weekly Internet use at Time 1 and Time 2. Only a negative correlation was found between gender and social activity change at Time 1 and Time 2. INTRODUCTION The long-term, excessive use of the Internet, often coined problematic Internet use (PIU), resembles the DSM-IV definition of impulse control disorder (Shapira et al., 2000) or pathological gambling (Young, 1996). Various names associated with Internet addiction include cyberspace/online/net addiction, high Internet dependency, Internet addicted disorder, pathological Internet use, problematic Internet use, excessive Internet use, and compulsive Internet use (Davis, Flett, & Besser, 2002; Hur, 2006; Widyanto & Griffiths, 2006). Previous studies suggest that PIU leads to the disregard of crucial daily responsibilities such as work, academic, family, or social obligations (Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000; Aboujaoude, 2010; Tutgun, Deniz & Moon, 2011, Şahin, 2011). Because the majority of university students live away from home with minimal parental monitoring and easy access to the Internet, we sought to observe whether the initial emergence of PIU alters university students’ daily routines, including changes to their dietary, sleep patterns and physical activities. We were also interested in less-visible (because of their dynamic nature) changes to their social relationships. Lifestyle factors are critical in adolescence because an adequate amount of quality physical/social activities as well as healthy diet/sleep habits facilitate adolescent physiological growth and psychological development. Young (1998a) was a pioneer researcher who developed the Diagnostic Questionnaire for Internet Addiction as a tool to identify maladaptive Internet users. Following her suggestion, some related research based on the mental disorder view to distinct additive users versus normal users. YDQ and some relevant questionnaires (Beard and Wolf, 2001; Shapira et al., 2003; Ko et al., 2005) have been used to select a small percentage of online users with severe dependent symptoms. Their findings mostly contribute to the secondary and tertiary prevention perspectives. In contrast, our motivation was to construct a questionnaire that we named “Lifestyle Change in Regard to Problematic Internet Use (LC-PIU)” for helping school psychologists and educators detect early indications of PIU-related lifestyle changes in university populations. Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 315
TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – October 2012, volume 11 Issue 4 Primary prevention regarding the promotion of health and the prevention of illness is evolving in the fields of public health and psychiatry. Wallace (2002) proposed that primary prevention generally involves the prevention of diseases and conditions before their biological onset. Using concepts from the fields of epidemiology and psychiatry, Caplan (1964) defined primary prevention as lowering of the incidence (i.e., rate of new cases) of a specified mental disorder; the aim of primary prevention is to reduce incidences of a problem or disorder before it forms. Accordingly, our focus is on all university students who use the Internet, not users who already show severe dependent symptoms. The PIU is a cause for great concern in Taiwan, a country with more than 1.3 university students comprising 5.8% of the total population (Ministry of Education, 2011). We believe that a significant percentage of these students are facing challenges in terms of managing their Internet usage at some point during their college careers. In this paper we describe how we tested for a conceptually meaningful factor structure using both exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The EFA was applied to a calibration sample, and the CFA was tested using a validation sample. We also examined the concurrent and predictive cross-year utilities of the LC-PIU on depression and loneliness as well as the relationships among LC-PIU scores, gender and weekly Internet use. In addition, the internal consistency reliability of the total scale and each subscale were tested. Research of Problematic Internet Use and measurements Because Internet addiction is not yet recognized in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revised (DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) most research in this area has adapted the diagnostic criteria of pathological gambling. Recently, some experts have supported the inclusion of Internet addiction in the upcoming DSM-V. For example, Block (2008) proposed including the term “Internet addiction” in the DSM-V as a diagnosis of compulsive-impulsive spectrum disorder that involves online, offline, or both types of computer use. He also believes that at least three subtypes should be included: excessive game playing, sexual preoccupation, and e-mail/text messaging. All three are marked by excessive usage, withdrawal, tolerance, and negative repercussions. Many different diagnostic criteria have been suggested for the identification of Internet addiction. First introduced by Goldberg (1995) and made popular in subsequent empirical research, Young (1996) adopted the DSM-IV criteria for substance dependence to describe the impairment of an individual with “Internet addiction.” Later, Young (1998a) adopted the DSM-IV criteria of pathological gambling, an impulse-control disorder, into her Diagnostic Questionnaire. DQ consists of 8 items. If a participant answers “yes” to more than 5 of the 8 criteria, then the participant is classified as Internet dependent. Young (1998b) also created the 20-item Internet Addiction Test (IAT) with six factors: salience, excessive use, anticipation, lack of control, neglect of work, and neglect of social life. Likewise, Brenner (1997) generated the Internet-Related Addictive Behavior Inventory (IRABI) that uses 32 true-false questions. He extracted three factors from the IRABI: tolerance, withdrawal, and craving. Moreover, Morahan-Martin and Schumacher (2000) developed 13 yes-no questions to assess the problems due to Internet use by adapting Young’s Internet addiction criteria. Young (1996) proposed the first set of “Internet addiction” diagnostic criteria by adopting the substance dependence criteria from the DSM-IV due to similarities she observed with regard to the states of tolerance and withdrawal. Subsequently, Young (1998a) updated her diagnostic questionnaire using the DSM-IV definition of pathological gambling, an impulse control disorder often described as a behavioral addiction. However, many studies admitted that the term “Internet addiction” is confusing and lacks scientific evidence. For example, Murali and George (2007) suggest that the nosological and conceptual ambiguity surrounding Internet addiction has led many researchers to question its untested validity. These opponents propose that the term “Internet addiction” be replaced by those such as excessive, maladaptive or problematic Internet use. Some researchers avoid using the term “Internet addiction”, while others criticize its definition as being too narrow to capture the population of problematic Internet users. This limitation leads to premature conclusions regarding a new disorder and the patients who have related symptoms (Aboujaoude, 2010). Specifically, Beard and Wolf (2001) as well as Shapira, Lessig, Goldsmith, Szabo, Lazoritz, Gold, and Stein (2003) have suggested using the less controversial term “problematic Internet use” rather than “Internet addiction.” Shapira, Goldsmith, Keck, Khosla, and McElroy (2000) stated that problematic Internet use is characterized by an individual’s inability to control their urge to use the Internet without concern for the consequences. This lack of will power results in feelings of distress and the functional impairment of daily activities. Shapira et al. (2003) conceptualized problematic Internet use as an impulse control disorder. An individual should be diagnosed with problematic Internet use if he or she exhibits three phenomena (a) maladaptive preoccupation with Internet use, such as experiencing an irresistible use of the Internet and using the Internet more than the amount of time intended; (b) clinically significant distress or maladaptive functioning in social, occupational, and other critical areas due to excessive Copyright © The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 316
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