Crossroads: The Psychology of Immigration in the New Century

Populations Facing Unique
Challenges
This section addresses populations that face unique
challenges through the migratory process. Their
particular needs or viewpoints are typically
overlooked or unrecognized in both the research
scholarship and treatment interventions.
Women and Girls
In the past 2 decades, there has been a worldwide trend
toward the “feminization” of migration, with more women
migrating than men. In 2009, the U.S. Census estimated
there were equal distributions of foreign-born men and
women (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009b). Women, however,
tend to have higher rates of legal migration (52% vs. 48%
in 2004), while men are more likely to be unauthorized
(58% vs. 42%) (Fry, 2006). In 2008, immigrant women were
twice as likely as immigrant men to be widowed, divorced,
or separated; were less likely than immigrant men to have
a bachelor’s or an advanced degree; and were more likely
than immigrant men to live in poverty (Migration Policy
Institute, 2009).
One salient challenge that immigrant women face involves
changing gender roles and conceptualizations of sexuality.
As gender roles can vary significantly between country of
origin and the United States, women sometimes experience
increased sexual freedom and are less likely to adhere to
traditional roles, but at other times they may feel oppressed
by the demands of the new cultural context (Espín, 2006; I.
López, Dent, Ecosto, & Prado-Steiman, 2011). For example,
many women report feeling burdened by the demands of
family life without the support of extended family in the
country of origin. For many lesbian and bisexual women,
relocating to the United States may provide an increased
sense of freedom and more opportunities to openly express
and explore their sexual orientation. However, they may
continue to feel vulnerable and marginalized in both
mainstream society and their respective ethnic communities
(Espín, 2006; I. López, Dent, et al., 2011).
While many immigrant women feel empowered when they
adopt more egalitarian roles in the United States (Morash,
Bui, Zhang, & Holtfreter, 2007), they are also challenged
by increased stress within their family units as gender
roles become redefined. Changes in gender roles not only
shape family dynamics but also can pose a serious risk to
immigrant women. Several studies highlight the risk of
violence against immigrant women fostered in patriarchal
family structures by disagreements about gender roles and
family life (Ahmad, Riaz, Barata, & Stewart, 2004; Morash
et al., 2007). Furthermore, women may be reluctant to
seek help for interpersonal violence situations for various
reasons, such as stigma associated with abuse within the
ethnic community; lack of awareness of where to seek help;
limited financial resources; anxiety about seeking help from
professionals not knowledgeable about their cultural values;
a wish to preserve close family ties; cultural and religious
beliefs about divorce; and fear related to loss of immigration
status, deportation, and separation from their children
(Tummala-Narra, in press).
Stress within the family is sometimes compounded by
experiences of multiple forms of discrimination outside
the home, including sexism, racism, ageism, classism, and
homophobia. For example, in the case of Muslim immigrant
women, ongoing scrutiny in the media and mainstream
society more broadly concerning women’s
dress and religious beliefs perpetuate negative stereotypes.
In fact, research indicates that Muslim women who cover
their hair report more discrimination than those who do not
(Sirin & Fine, 2008). With respect to policy, the 2010 Arizona
immigration legislation is an example of a xenophobic
policy that poses a danger to women immigrants, who are
vulnerable to interpersonal and political violence (e.g., rape,
physical assault, and separation from their children), lack access
to physical health care, and fear detention and deportation.
This is particularly true for Latina immigrants, who are at
an increased risk for continued exploitation by police and
immigration authorities in U.S. states bordering Mexico
(Comas-Díaz, 2010; Tummala-Narra, in press).
32 Report of the APA Presidential Task Force on Immigration