Crossroads: The Psychology of Immigration in the New Century

the government or a group the government cannot or does
not control (Littlefield, 2005). This is a difficult standard to
prove for both adults and children, and meeting these asylum
criteria is nearly impossible.
For many unaccompanied children, especially those from
Central and South America, economic hardship, not
persecution, led to their migration (Littlefield, 2005). An
option for some of these children is to prove “abuse, neglect,
or abandonment” and show that a return to their home
countries is not in their best interest. They can apply for a
special immigrant juvenile visa that enables them eventually
to obtain permanent legal residence and naturalize after 5
years (Littlefield, 2005). While waiting for a hearing before
an immigration judge, unaccompanied children are housed
in federally funded care as determined by ORR. These
children can be held in a variety of places, including foster
care, group homes, transitional housing, mental health centers,
detention facilities, juvenile and adult jails, and locked hotel
rooms (Littlefield, 2005). Though ORR attempts to reunify
unaccompanied children
with relatives and most leave
federal custody within 45
days, concerns regularly
emerge about the lack of
legal representation and
conditions of detainment
for unaccompanied minors
(Littlefield, 2005).
Victims of Human Trafficking
Human trafficking refers to the illegal trade of human beings
through the use of coercion and deception with the purpose
of sexual and/or labor exploitation, and as such, constitutes a
type of modern day slavery (Bernat & Zhilina, 2010). Human
trafficking violates human rights and is typically rooted in
economic deprivation and political instability, as well as in
gender inequality (Bernat & Zhilina, 2010; Blackburn, Taylor,
& Davis, 2010). Men, women, and children can become
victims of trafficking through manipulation by traffickers who
promise them opportunities for education and employment
(Adepoju, 2005). Sex trafficking victims, many of whom have
previously experienced sexual and physical violence, are led to
believe they can escape this violence by leaving their homes
(Bernat & Zhilina, 2010).
On arriving in the United States, however, victims of
trafficking have limited or no access to structural supports
Victims of trafficking have limited or
no access to structural supports that
can provide them with physical and
psychological safety and are subsequently
trapped in cycles of exploitation.
that can provide them with physical and psychological safety
and are subsequently trapped in cycles of exploitation. Many
are working to pay off human smugglers or recruitment
agencies in a form of indentured servitude that can last for
many years. Immigrant adults from many countries can
be caught in these kinds of exploitative schemes—from
Chinese garment workers in New York City, to Mexican
domestic workers across the country, to Filipino teachers
recruited to teach in the public schools (Southern Poverty
Law Center, 2011). The United States is now among
the top destinations for human trafficking victims, with
reports of trafficking in over 90 cities (Hepburn & Simon,
2010). While various types of exploitation occur in human
trafficking, sexual exploitation is a growing concern.
A particularly vulnerable group is the growing number of
women and children who are brought to U.S. destinations
where there is a demand for prostitution (e.g., military bases,
tourist and conventions sites, and migrant communities)
(Ugarte, Zárate, & Farley, 2004). These sexually exploited
women are reluctant to seek
medical or psychological
services for various reasons,
including lack of financial
resources, limited ability
to speak English, lack of
understanding of the criminal
justice system, fear of being
reported to immigration
authorities, and fear their traffickers will kill them or their
families (Bernat & Zhilina, 2010). They also fear returning to
their countries of origin, where they might face rejection or
be unable to readjust to their previous cultural surroundings.
Their isolation from supports in the United States and the
country of origin and their repeated experiences of violation
place these women at high risk for physical and psychological
stress (Bernat & Zhilina, 2010). Interventions that are traumainformed
and culturally responsive are sorely needed for these
exploited women and children.
Migrant Workers and Day Laborers
Migrant farm workers and day laborers are a particularly
vulnerable immigrant group, as most are not authorized to
work in the United States. Because there is not a census of
farm workers, farm labor researchers draw on a number of
data sources to estimate the number of farm workers. For
example, data from a combination of sources, including the
Census of Agriculture, which was last conducted in 2007,
36 Report of the APA Presidential Task Force on Immigration