Crossroads: The Psychology of Immigration in the New Century

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to read in the home language promotes reading in the second language. When students are well grounded in their native language and have developed reading and writing skills in that language, they are better able to apply that knowledge efficiently to the new language when provided appropriate instructional supports (Butler & Hakuta, 2005). Unfortunately, however, many immigrant students do not encounter robust second-language-acquisition educational programs and often face individual disadvantages and structural linguistic isolations that may hinder their adequate academic English development (V. P. Collier, 1992; C. Suárez-Orozco et al., 2008). Cognitive Effects of Being Bilingual There is extensive literature on the effects of linguistic experience on cognitive performance that suggests there are positive and negative effects of being bilingual (Bialystok, 2009). Although, as Bialystok pointed out, “knowing more has never been a disadvantage when compared with knowing less” (p. 192), bilingual individuals do generally have a smaller vocabulary in each language than do monolingual speakers. Similarly, bilingual persons tend to score lower on verbal fluency and lexical access tasks and are slower in naming pictures (Bialystok, 2009). As a result, timed tests of verbal ability that are used as markers of cognitive development may erroneously suggest some degree of impairment in bilinguals compared with monolinguals. In direct contradiction to this kind of evidence, however, it also appears that multiple language fluency leads to better executive functioning. Because being bilingual entails a constant need to control access to different language memory stores, bilingualism appears to improve controlled inhibition tasks, selective attention, attention shifting, and updating of working memory (Bialystok, 2009). Thus, compared with monolinguals, bilingual populations appear better able to resolve linguistic tasks with ambiguous or contradictory meanings. In fact, multilingualism may provide protection against some aspects of age-related cognitive loss. In general, bilinguals show improved performance on tasks that require response selection decisions and conflict resolution tasks (Bialystok, 2009). Second-Language Instruction Second-language instruction is a critical component to ensuring the academic success of immigrant-origin youth (Batalova, Fix, & Murray, 2007). There are numerous models of bilingual and language assistance programs for a wide array of practices, programs, and philosophical approaches (Thomas & Collier, 2002): • Limited pull-out instruction in ESL classrooms is most often used with learners from different countries who speak different languages; the rest of the day is spent in regular classes. • Transitional bilingual programs provide academic support after students transition out of their language of origin into English. • In one-way developmental bilingual programs, students of one language group are schooled in two languages (e.g., English and Spanish) so they can keep up with academic material in their native language as they learn English. • In structured immersion programs, the curriculum is simplified and is taught more slowly in English and with a great deal of repetition. • In sheltered English programs, all lessons in every subject are at least in part a second-language lesson; thus a science class is also an opportunity to learn new vocabulary. • Dual-language immersion classes involve students learning half of the time in English and half in their native language, with half of the class being English speakers and the other half native speakers of another language. This kind of program offers greater opportunity for students to truly become bilingual and expand their academic skills by drawing on both languages. Research suggests that bilingual education programs produce better results in terms of academic success than English language immersion programs (Goldenberg, 2008). Proficiency in the native language is related to academic achievement in the second language (Riches & Genesee, 2006). For younger students, children’s native language skills support literacy development because literacy skills transfer. When learning to read, learning to recognize phonetic symbols in their native language can speed up the literacy process (August, 2002; G. E. García, 2000; Lindsey, Manis, & Bailey, 2003). Advantages to native language instruction in later grades have also been found (Slavin & Cheung, 2005), though few published studies of educational programs are of high quality (longitudinal, randomized), and more research is needed to understand the process of second-language acquisition in school (Goldenberg, 2008). 56 Report of the APA Presidential Task Force on Immigration
Finally, none of the educational structures for ELL students reviewed previously are designed to meet the specific needs of students with interrupted or no prior education. Newcomers with interrupted education are generally placed in the same bilingual or ESL classrooms as other students, leaving ELL teachers to struggle with how to meet their complex educational needs without additional support. While other countries such as Australia and Israel place newly arrived students into special year-long newcomer programs, the United States has essentially adopted a “sink or swim” approach, placing these students directly into mainstream classrooms with limited pull-out ESL support. Although a range of “newcomer” programs has been tried across varied U.S. school systems, there is no systematic research describing variations among them and testing their effectiveness for “underschooled” students (R. Constantino & Lavadenz, 1993). In general, well-designed and implemented programs offer good educational results and buffer at-risk students from dropping out by easing transitions and providing academic scaffolding and a sense of community (Padilla et al., 1991). There is, however, a huge disparity in quality of instruction among settings. While it has been well demonstrated that high-quality programs produce excellent results, those plagued with problems produce, not surprisingly, less than optimal results (August & Hakuta, 1997; Thomas & Collier, 2002). Many bilingual programs unfortunately face real challenges in their implementation: inadequate resources, poor administrative support, and a dearth of fully certified bilingual teachers who are trained in second-language acquisition and can serve as proper language models to their students (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). school Belonging In addition to language-related challenges, immigrant students must transfer their academic skills to the U.S. school environment and form relationships with peers and school adults. A sense of school belonging has been defined as the level of attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief students have in the value of their school (Kia- Keating & Ellis, 2007). This sense of belonging, in turn, has implications for increasing social involvement, motivation, school attendance, academic engagement, and, ultimately, achievement (Hamre & Pianta, 2001). In addition, for immigrant students, sense of school belonging has been found to predict better mental health (Kia-Keating & Ellis, Immigrant Populations in Educational Contexts 2007), indicating the importance of feeling “at home” in their new environment. Sense of school belonging can be fostered by social support from school peers and adults. Social support in the school has been linked to academic adaptation of immigrant students (Portes & Rumbaut, 2001; Zhou & Bankston, 1998). Positive relationships with school adults can help bridge the gap between home and school cultures and create important linguistic and cultural connections to the new society (Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1994). Supportive relationships with caring adults in the school context also provide emotional sustenance and practical help and advice for newcomers, sometimes sparking active participation in subject areas that may have traditionally held little interest for students. Conversely, students may lose interest in the subject matter if they perceive a diminished interest in their progress on the part of the teacher. English language learner (bilingual and ESL) teachers play a critically important role in the school experience of newcomer students. As “first responders” to the nation’s immigrant students, they tend to spend more time, in smaller classrooms, getting to know them and becoming their advocates in the school (Birman, 2005). Bilingual teachers have the additional advantage of being able to communicate with parents in their native language and serve as a bridge between home and school. These teachers are asked to fill a number of roles inside and outside the classroom often not formally recognized or valued by school authorities (Bascia, 1996; Trickett et al., 2012). They are often asked to fill gaps in educational programs that do not meet the needs of their students, provide professional development for mainstream teachers, reach out to students’ families, and search for additional resources unavailable at school to support their students (Bascia & Jacka, 2001). They are also blamed when their students do not perform well in mainstream classes (e.g., Olsen, 1997). Despite the tremendous importance of their work for immigrant-origin students, research suggests that ELL teachers are not sufficiently supported in this role (Trickett et al., 2012). Parental Involvement Parental school involvement (e.g., participating in parent– teacher organizations, volunteering in class, and chaperoning field trips) has shown profound effects on performance and adaptation to school for U.S.-born students (Henderson 57
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Report of the APA Presidential Task
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Crossroads The Psychology of ImmIgr
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Preface One of the benefits of serv
Page 10 and 11:
Diane Elmore, PhD (APA Public Inter
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2011; C. Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-O
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2010; M. H. Lopez & Taylor, 2010).
Page 16 and 17: designed with their educational obs
Page 18 and 19: al., 2006), communication problems
Page 20 and 21: Sloan, & Sperling, 2011) and toward
Page 22 and 23: • The mesosystem is made up of in
Page 24 and 25: lesbian, gay, bisexual, disabilitie
Page 26 and 27: contributed to the growth of undocu
Page 28 and 29: All other countries 42% FIGURE 3. T
Page 30 and 31: to learn English (Bayley & Regan, 2
Page 32 and 33: Exclusion Act of 1882) specifically
Page 34 and 35: and mental health outcomes. Discrim
Page 36 and 37: adaptation: acculturation, Cultural
Page 38 and 39: In a number of studies, strong iden
Page 40 and 41: documented the problems caused by a
Page 42 and 43: Populations Facing Unique Challenge
Page 44 and 45: American region (Mexico, Canada, Ce
Page 46 and 47: the government or a group the gover
Page 48 and 49: Notably, in 2000, approximately 650
Page 50 and 51: often rely on their ethnic immigran
Page 52 and 53: Life span Considerations Looking at
Page 54 and 55: Transition to adulthood in the Unit
Page 56 and 57: In a study of Korean elders, there
Page 58 and 59: those of native English speakers an
Page 60 and 61: linguistic group in the United Stat
Page 62 and 63: or deported, immigration officials
Page 64 and 65: Immigrant students whose education
Page 68 and 69: & Mapp, 2002). Teachers, in turn, v
Page 70 and 71: In a knowledge-intensive economy, h
Page 72 and 73: separation from country of origin,
Page 74 and 75: As individuals negotiate their iden
Page 76 and 77: Barriers to Treatment While an incr
Page 78 and 79: and traditional mental health setti
Page 80 and 81: effective than those conducted in E
Page 82 and 83: development, to remediation). Thera
Page 84 and 85: Considerations for the Field The Un
Page 86 and 87: time. For example, under what condi
Page 88 and 89: summary of recommendations Recommen
Page 90 and 91: • Support opportunities for dialo
Page 92 and 93: Culture brokering: When children of
Page 94 and 95: Protective factors: Conditions in f
Page 96 and 97: eferences Abraham, M. (2000). Isola
Page 98 and 99: Bedolla, L. G. (2000). They and we:
Page 100 and 101: Carhill, A., Suárez-Orozco, C., &
Page 102 and 103: Delgado-Gaitan, C. (1994, April). M
Page 104 and 105: Gee, G. C., Spencer, M., Chen, J.,
Page 106 and 107: www.splcenter.org/get-informed/inte
Page 108 and 109: LaFromboise, T., Coleman, H. L., &
Page 110 and 111: McKitrick, D. S., Edwards, T. A., &
Page 112 and 113: psychological, and educational appl
Page 114 and 115: Robjant, K., Hassan, R., & Katona,
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Stepick, A., Stepick, C. D., & Labi
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the job that’s tough”: The ELL
Page 120 and 121:
Waters, M. C., & Jiménez, T. R. (2
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AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
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