Crossroads: The Psychology of Immigration in the New Century

Notably, in 2000, approximately 650,000 children and
adolescents were thought to accompany their parents
in their seasonal work (Huddle, 2000). Not surprisingly,
these children, many of whom are U.S.-born citizens, are
particularly vulnerable to both educational and health risks
(Green, 2003). As one might predict, contextual stressors like
crowding increase depressive symptoms as well (Grzywacz,
Quandt, et al., 2010). Simply having a place to put one’s
belongings appears to help reduce the stress of crowding.
Mental health problems are buffered by strong social
support systems and are exacerbated by acculturative stress,
particularly for recent migrant families.
refugee and asylum-seeker
Populations
While the numbers of refugees and asylum seekers are
relatively small compared to the overall number of arriving
immigrants, these populations face multiple stressors that
can have an impact on their mental health. Refugees are
admitted to the United States because of humanitarian
concerns after being forced from their homes by war and/
or persecution based on their race, religion, membership in
a political or social group, or political opinions. Since 1975,
the United States has resettled over 3 million refugees, with
annual admissions figures ranging from a high of 207,000
in 1980 to a low of 27,110 in 2002 (U.S. Department of
Homeland Security, 2010). Current U.S. refugee admission
policies focus on “warehoused populations”—those
who have been living for extended periods of time in
refugee camps with no foreseeable hope of repatriation or
resettlement (Negash, 2010).
The experience of refugees and asylum seekers differs from
that of other immigrants. Refugees leave their countries
of origin involuntarily in the context of war and political
upheaval and experience traumatic events in the process
(APA, 2010c). They experience loss of loved ones and of
their native country without the possibility of return, a
process referred to as “cultural bereavement” (Eisenbruch,
1988). A legacy of loss and exposure to trauma accompanies
already complex acculturation and adjustment processes
and is associated with psychological symptoms (Masuda,
Lin, & Tazuma, 1980). Survivors of torture and those who
had been in detention facilities have especially high mental
health needs and may require long-term treatment (Carlsson,
Mortensen, & Kastrup, 2005; Ehntholt & Yule, 2006;
Robjant, Hassan, & Katona, 2009). Ongoing separation
from loved ones who continue to be in danger also predicts
psychological symptoms (Nickerson, Bryant, Steel, Silove,
& Brooks, 2010). As a result, refugee adults and children are
at particularly high risk for mental health problems (APA,
2010c), including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
depression, anxiety, psychosis, and dissociation (Keyes, 2000).
While premigration trauma is an important factor in refugee
mental health, particularly in the early stages of resettlement
(Beiser, 2006), postmigration factors also have an important
impact (Birman & Tran, 2008). Postmigration factors such
as accommodation in private and permanent housing and
economic opportunity have been found to be associated
with better mental health outcomes, although higher levels
of education and socioeconomic status prior to displacement
were associated with worse outcomes, which may reflect loss
of status (Porter & Haslam, 2005). Social support, particularly
from others from the same refugee community (Simich,
Beiser, & Mawani, 2003), and English-language use (Ngo,
Tran, Gibbons, & Oliver, 2001) and fluency (Beiser, 2006)
were also found to have a positive impact on mental health.
Experiencing discrimination, on the other hand, can have
negative mental and physical health consequences (APA,
2010c; Kira et al., 2010).
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and
Transgender (LGBT) Immigrants
The United States has a history of denying entry to
immigrants based on race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual
orientation (Howe, 2007). In 1990, U.S. immigration law
changed, no longer denying entry to individuals based
solely on their sexual orientation (Rank, 2002). However,
many obstacles still remain, which can make immigration
especially challenging for LGBT individuals.
Asylum Seekers
Homosexual behavior is illegal in 76 countries. In 7 of
these countries, it is punishable by death (Iran, Mauritania,
Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen, and some parts of Nigeria and
Somalia; International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and
Intersex Association, 2010). In 1994, U.S. asylum policy
changed to include persecution based on sexual orientation
(Rank, 2002). Psychologists may encounter clients who
have been persecuted or tortured because of their sexual
orientation or gender identity in their country of origin and
should be prepared to recognize this issue and related client
needs (Heller, 2009; Pepper, 2005).
38 Report of the APA Presidential Task Force on Immigration