Crossroads: The Psychology of Immigration in the New Century

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Notably, in 2000, approximately 650,000 children and adolescents were thought to accompany their parents in their seasonal work (Huddle, 2000). Not surprisingly, these children, many of whom are U.S.-born citizens, are particularly vulnerable to both educational and health risks (Green, 2003). As one might predict, contextual stressors like crowding increase depressive symptoms as well (Grzywacz, Quandt, et al., 2010). Simply having a place to put one’s belongings appears to help reduce the stress of crowding. Mental health problems are buffered by strong social support systems and are exacerbated by acculturative stress, particularly for recent migrant families. refugee and asylum-seeker Populations While the numbers of refugees and asylum seekers are relatively small compared to the overall number of arriving immigrants, these populations face multiple stressors that can have an impact on their mental health. Refugees are admitted to the United States because of humanitarian concerns after being forced from their homes by war and/ or persecution based on their race, religion, membership in a political or social group, or political opinions. Since 1975, the United States has resettled over 3 million refugees, with annual admissions figures ranging from a high of 207,000 in 1980 to a low of 27,110 in 2002 (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2010). Current U.S. refugee admission policies focus on “warehoused populations”—those who have been living for extended periods of time in refugee camps with no foreseeable hope of repatriation or resettlement (Negash, 2010). The experience of refugees and asylum seekers differs from that of other immigrants. Refugees leave their countries of origin involuntarily in the context of war and political upheaval and experience traumatic events in the process (APA, 2010c). They experience loss of loved ones and of their native country without the possibility of return, a process referred to as “cultural bereavement” (Eisenbruch, 1988). A legacy of loss and exposure to trauma accompanies already complex acculturation and adjustment processes and is associated with psychological symptoms (Masuda, Lin, & Tazuma, 1980). Survivors of torture and those who had been in detention facilities have especially high mental health needs and may require long-term treatment (Carlsson, Mortensen, & Kastrup, 2005; Ehntholt & Yule, 2006; Robjant, Hassan, & Katona, 2009). Ongoing separation from loved ones who continue to be in danger also predicts psychological symptoms (Nickerson, Bryant, Steel, Silove, & Brooks, 2010). As a result, refugee adults and children are at particularly high risk for mental health problems (APA, 2010c), including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, psychosis, and dissociation (Keyes, 2000). While premigration trauma is an important factor in refugee mental health, particularly in the early stages of resettlement (Beiser, 2006), postmigration factors also have an important impact (Birman & Tran, 2008). Postmigration factors such as accommodation in private and permanent housing and economic opportunity have been found to be associated with better mental health outcomes, although higher levels of education and socioeconomic status prior to displacement were associated with worse outcomes, which may reflect loss of status (Porter & Haslam, 2005). Social support, particularly from others from the same refugee community (Simich, Beiser, & Mawani, 2003), and English-language use (Ngo, Tran, Gibbons, & Oliver, 2001) and fluency (Beiser, 2006) were also found to have a positive impact on mental health. Experiencing discrimination, on the other hand, can have negative mental and physical health consequences (APA, 2010c; Kira et al., 2010). Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) Immigrants The United States has a history of denying entry to immigrants based on race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation (Howe, 2007). In 1990, U.S. immigration law changed, no longer denying entry to individuals based solely on their sexual orientation (Rank, 2002). However, many obstacles still remain, which can make immigration especially challenging for LGBT individuals. Asylum Seekers Homosexual behavior is illegal in 76 countries. In 7 of these countries, it is punishable by death (Iran, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen, and some parts of Nigeria and Somalia; International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association, 2010). In 1994, U.S. asylum policy changed to include persecution based on sexual orientation (Rank, 2002). Psychologists may encounter clients who have been persecuted or tortured because of their sexual orientation or gender identity in their country of origin and should be prepared to recognize this issue and related client needs (Heller, 2009; Pepper, 2005). 38 Report of the APA Presidential Task Force on Immigration
The process of seeking asylum as an LGBT person is complicated. Yoshini (2006) coined the phrases “covering” and “reverse covering” to describe the experience of LGBT asylum seekers. Covering refers to minimizing “traits that visibly mark one as having a disfavored or disadvantaged identity” (Heller, 2009, p. 296), whereas reverse covering refers to an individual’s putting his or her sexual identity on display. LGBT asylum seekers must often do both—covering in their country of origin and then reverse covering when seeking asylum to convince decision makers they are in fact LGBT and would be persecuted in their home country (Heller, 2009). This transition can be difficult for asylum seekers who previously hid their sexual or gender identity for safety reasons (Heller, 2009). The expectation that LGBT asylum seekers should reverse cover in the United States ignores the fact that they may also face discrimination in their ethnic immigrant communities and in mainstream U.S. society if others are aware of their LGBT identity (Heller, 2009). In keeping with the Guidelines for Psychological Practice With Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Clients (APA, 2011) and in particular with Guideline 1 (“Psychologists strive to understand the effects of stigma [i.e., prejudice, discrimination, and violence] and its various contextual manifestations in the lives of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people”), psychologists who work with LGBT asylum seekers should be aware of the stress related to covering and reverse covering. Binational Couples There are currently 25 countries that recognize same-sex couples for immigration purposes, but the United States is not one of them (Konnoth & Gates, 2011). While a married U.S. citizen can sponsor a different-sex spouse for immigration, same-sex partners or spouses of U.S. citizens and permanent residents are not recognized as family members, even if they get married in a state or country where same-sex marriage is legal (U.S. General Accounting Office, 2004). This government-sanctioned exclusion means that same-sex binational couples must separate, obtain a “green card” for the non-U.S. partner through other means (e.g., employment), live in the U.S. illegally, or leave the Populations Facing Unique Challenges While a married U.S. citizen can sponsor a different-sex spouse for immigration, same-sex partners or spouses of U.S. citizens and permanent residents are not recognized as family members. United States and immigrate to a country that permits both partners to live there (Human Rights Watch/Immigration Equality, 2006). The majority of same-sex binational couples (53%) are unable to pursue permanent residency as a couple in either partner’s country of origin (Konnoth & Gates, 2011). As of 2010, there are an estimated 79,200 same-sex couples in the United States with at least one partner who is not a U.S. citizen, representing 12% of all same-sex couples counted in this country (Konnoth & Gates, 2011). Of these, approximately 28,574 are binational couples, 11,442 are dual noncitizen couples, and 39,176 are dual citizen couples with at least one naturalized partner (Konnoth & Gates, 2011). These numbers do not take into account couples who are separated because of immigration problems, did not disclose their relationship status due to fear of being reported for overstaying or not having proper documentation, or left the United States to remain together. Thirty-nine percent of female binational couples and 25% of male binational couples are raising an estimated 17,000 children (Konnoth & Gates, 2011), demonstrating that current immigration policy does not only harm LGBT individuals but their families as well. Sixty-four percent of noncitizens in same-sex binational relationships are ethnic minorities; of those, 54% are Latino/a and 14% are Asian Pacific Islander. Mexico is the home country for 25% of noncitizens in same-sex binational couples, followed by Canada with 8% and the United Kingdom with 6% (Konnoth & Gates, 2011). U.S. citizens in same-sex binational relationships are 54% White, 33% Latino/a, 7% Asian Pacific Islander, and 3% African American (Konnoth & Gates, 2011). A bill that would recognize same-sex partners for immigration was first introduced in Congress in 2000 (Human Rights Watch/ Immigration Equality, 2006). Since it was first introduced over a decade ago, countless same-sex binational couples have been separated or have made the difficult decision to leave the United States. Homophobia in Immigrant Communities Just as homophobia exists in mainstream U.S. culture, it also exists in immigrant communities (Espín, 1999). Immigrants 39
Page 1 and 2: Report of the APA Presidential Task
Page 3: Crossroads The Psychology of ImmIgr
Page 7: Preface One of the benefits of serv
Page 10 and 11: Diane Elmore, PhD (APA Public Inter
Page 12 and 13: 2011; C. Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-O
Page 14 and 15: 2010; M. H. Lopez & Taylor, 2010).
Page 16 and 17: designed with their educational obs
Page 18 and 19: al., 2006), communication problems
Page 20 and 21: Sloan, & Sperling, 2011) and toward
Page 22 and 23: • The mesosystem is made up of in
Page 24 and 25: lesbian, gay, bisexual, disabilitie
Page 26 and 27: contributed to the growth of undocu
Page 28 and 29: All other countries 42% FIGURE 3. T
Page 30 and 31: to learn English (Bayley & Regan, 2
Page 32 and 33: Exclusion Act of 1882) specifically
Page 34 and 35: and mental health outcomes. Discrim
Page 36 and 37: adaptation: acculturation, Cultural
Page 38 and 39: In a number of studies, strong iden
Page 40 and 41: documented the problems caused by a
Page 42 and 43: Populations Facing Unique Challenge
Page 44 and 45: American region (Mexico, Canada, Ce
Page 46 and 47: the government or a group the gover
Page 50 and 51: often rely on their ethnic immigran
Page 52 and 53: Life span Considerations Looking at
Page 54 and 55: Transition to adulthood in the Unit
Page 56 and 57: In a study of Korean elders, there
Page 58 and 59: those of native English speakers an
Page 60 and 61: linguistic group in the United Stat
Page 62 and 63: or deported, immigration officials
Page 64 and 65: Immigrant students whose education
Page 66 and 67: to read in the home language promot
Page 68 and 69: & Mapp, 2002). Teachers, in turn, v
Page 70 and 71: In a knowledge-intensive economy, h
Page 72 and 73: separation from country of origin,
Page 74 and 75: As individuals negotiate their iden
Page 76 and 77: Barriers to Treatment While an incr
Page 78 and 79: and traditional mental health setti
Page 80 and 81: effective than those conducted in E
Page 82 and 83: development, to remediation). Thera
Page 84 and 85: Considerations for the Field The Un
Page 86 and 87: time. For example, under what condi
Page 88 and 89: summary of recommendations Recommen
Page 90 and 91: • Support opportunities for dialo
Page 92 and 93: Culture brokering: When children of
Page 94 and 95: Protective factors: Conditions in f
Page 96 and 97: eferences Abraham, M. (2000). Isola
Page 98 and 99:
Bedolla, L. G. (2000). They and we:
Page 100 and 101:
Carhill, A., Suárez-Orozco, C., &
Page 102 and 103:
Delgado-Gaitan, C. (1994, April). M
Page 104 and 105:
Gee, G. C., Spencer, M., Chen, J.,
Page 106 and 107:
www.splcenter.org/get-informed/inte
Page 108 and 109:
LaFromboise, T., Coleman, H. L., &
Page 110 and 111:
McKitrick, D. S., Edwards, T. A., &
Page 112 and 113:
psychological, and educational appl
Page 114 and 115:
Robjant, K., Hassan, R., & Katona,
Page 116 and 117:
Stepick, A., Stepick, C. D., & Labi
Page 118 and 119:
the job that’s tough”: The ELL
Page 120 and 121:
Waters, M. C., & Jiménez, T. R. (2
Page 124:
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
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