Crossroads: The Psychology of Immigration in the New Century

those of native English speakers and that as the language
demands of individuals’ test items decrease, so does the
achievement gap between ELL and native English-speaking
individuals (D. P. Flanagan et al., 2007; Mpofu & Ortiz, 2009;
Ortiz et al., 2012; Padilla & Borsato, 2008). To produce valid
measures of academic achievement, Solano-Flores (2008)
proposed that test developers and clinicians view language as
a dynamic factor and take into account “different language
and dialect patterns, different migration histories, different
kinds of exposure to formal instruction both in students’
first language (L1) and in their second language (L2), which
are among the many factors that make ELL populations so
heterogeneous” (p. 189).
Approximately 20,000 mental, personality, and educational
tests are published and developed each year. Most of these
tests have been developed and normed on mainstream
populations or minority populations who are English
speakers. All too often tests are administered in ways that
lead to (mis)diagnosis and inappropriate interventions
(Cohen & Swerdlik, 1999; Suzuki et al., 2005). This is
an area of professional practice often criticized for its
contribution to the perpetuation of social, economic, and
political barriers confronting minority and immigrant
groups (D. P. Flanagan et al., 2007; Mpofu & Ortiz, 2009;
Ortiz et al., 2012; Padilla & Borsato, 2008). For testing and
assessment to be culturally appropriate, there needs to be
a continuous, intentional, and active preoccupation with
the culture of the group or individual being assessed. The
construction and development of tests and assessments
need to include methodological insertions and adaptations
designed for the cultural and linguistic characteristics of the
group being assessed, including age of migration, length of
residency in the United States, generational status (e.g., first,
1.5, or second), English-language proficiency, and the extent
of acculturation (Padilla & Borsato, 2008).
There is a critical need to focus on the cultural context of
testing practices, since individuals from racial and cultural
minority groups may not value or understand the practice
of standardized, and at times, time-limited testing situations.
Therefore, the process of assessment, which includes both
qualitative (e.g., background information and observation)
and quantitative (e.g., standardized test scores) data
gathering, is an integral part of maintaining multicultural
assessment validity (MAV). MAV requires that practitioners
“arrive at an accurate, sound, and comprehensive description
of the client’s psychological presentation” (Ridley, Tracy,
Pruitt-Stephens, Wimsatt, & Beard, 2008, p. 27) by gathering
data on historical, familial, economic, social, and community
issues, which are critical in choosing appropriate tests and
language and interpreting test results (Suzuki et al., 2005).
assessment in Educational settings
Schools have limited assessment strategies to differentiate
between adjustment and learning disorders with regard to
ELLs, or non-English learners, and often lack the means or
ability to adapt tests or make appropriate administration,
translation, or assessment adaptations. Thus, many errors
are made that result in both over- and underdiagnosing
adjustment and learning disorders in school settings
(Agbenyega & Jiggetts, 1999; Birman & Chan, 2008;
Blanchett, Brantlinger, & Shealey, 2005).
Adjusting to school demands is particularly difficult for
children with limited literacy or interrupted education.
In addition, some of these children may have experienced
extensive trauma in their native country or during the
flight to safety or border crossing. Finally, as is true for
all children, some immigrant children may experience
learning, developmental, or emotional disabilities unrelated
to their migration. When a newly arrived immigrant child
is exhibiting academic or behavioral problems, it may not
be clear which of these possibilities is creating difficulties.
For example, a child who is making little progress in reading
may be having a difficult time learning literacy and English
language skills simultaneously; may be suffering from poor
concentration, which is a symptom of PTSD; or may have
difficulties with language processing due to a learning
disability. Given the lack of assessment instruments that
accurately assess and diagnose the nature of the problems
children experience (Birman & Chan, 2008), schools are
frequently faced with providing services without adequately
understanding the problem.
In fact, many school systems do not assess newly arrived
immigrant students for mental disabilities for at least one
year because they deem it impossible to differentiate
adjustment difficulties from mental disabilities. Research
suggests that poor, immigrant, and racial/ethnic minority
children are disproportionately placed in low-ability groups
early in their education (Blanchett et al., 2005). Students
from Spanish-speaking ELL backgrounds are overly referred
to specialized programs for students with speech and
language learning disabilities (Brantlinger, 2006). Teachers
referring immigrant students for special education testing
48 Report of the APA Presidential Task Force on Immigration