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international firms and 6) vertical quasi-integration advantages of linking the
complementary contributions of the partners in a value chain. However, these motives are
not evident in all alliances as motives vary from alliance to alliance depending on the
context and the organisations involved (Das & Teng, 2000; Mowery et al., 1996).
Regardless of the specific motives, alliance partners perceive that collaboration is more
beneficial that what they can achieve through independent action (Das & Teng, 2002; Mohr
& Spekman, 1994).
2.6 Learning in Alliances
Organisations may be motivated to establish alliances with the specific (and
sometimes explicit) purpose of learning (Shenkar & Jiatao, 1999; Teece & Pisano, 1994).
Inkpen (2002) argues that the nature of the learning opportunity in an alliance is dependent
on a number of factors. These include alliance form, partnering motives, the number of
partners, and the strategic relationship. Alliances established, for the specific purpose of
learning from alliance partners, are known as a ‘learning alliance’ (Khanna, Gulati, &
Nohria, 1998; Lane & Lubatkin, 1998). For example, Hamel (1991) describes how
Japanese firms entered into international alliances with Western partners with the specific
intent to learn from their partner. This resulted in Japanese firms learning more from the
alliance as a result of their ability to foster the intent to learn in their operational level
employees, whilst Western firms by contrast demonstrated a defensive learning intent.
This is an example of ‘learning through alliances’ whereby one alliance partner
learns or absorbs their partners’ skills, capabilities and knowledge (Inkpen & Dinur, 1998;
Kale, Singh, & Perlmutter, 2000; Tsang, 1999). This should not be confused with ‘learning
from strategic alliances’ which refers to an organisation learning from its alliance
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