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Surveillance – activities involved in systematic collection, collation, and analysis of animal health data. Disease surveillance is an epidemiological practice by which the spread of disease is monitored in order to establish patterns of progression. The main role of disease surveillance is to predict, observe, and minimize the harm caused by outbreak, epidemic, and pandemic situations, as well as increase our knowledge as to what factors might contribute to such circumstances (Wikipedia 2008). Systemic – relating to the organism as a whole. Transovarial transmission – passage of infectious agent to eggs within the ovaries; larvae are subsequently infected (Mullen and Durden 2002). Transstadial transmission – transmission of agent between different stages in the life history of an organism (Mullen and Durden 2002). Vector – organism which transmits the infectious agent to the host; examples include ticks and mosquitoes (Mullen and Durden 2002). Vector-borne disease – a disease in which the pathogenic microorganism is transmitted from an infected individual to another individual by an arthropod or other agent, sometimes with other animals serving as intermediary hosts (Mullen and Durden 2002). Vectorial capacity - the overall ability of a vector species in a given location at a specific time to transmit a pathogen is known as vectorial capacity (Mullen and Durden 2002). Viremia – the presence of a virus in the bloodstream. Virulence – The relative degree or ability of a microorganism to cause disease or damage its host. Virus – Any of various simple submicroscopic parasites of humans, animals, plants, and bacteria that are often pathogenic. Viruses consist essentially of a core piece of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat. Unable to replicate without a host cell, viruses are typically not considered living organisms. West Nile virus – a member of the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, West Nile virus (WNV) is a vector-borne disease that has the potential to cause febrile illness, encephalitis, and occasionally death in humans (Theophilides et al. 2003; Brownstein et al. 2002, 2004; Glaser 2004; Hayes et al. 2005). The known cycle of transmission for WNV is from birds to mosquitoes to humans and horses, which are both considered deadend hosts. However, the virus is believed to over-winter in mosquito populations and to reside within the bird ‘reservoir’ population (Allen and Wong 2006). 159
Vector competence – the vector competence of a species is a measure of how susceptible the vector is to infection with a pathogen and how efficiently that vector can transmit the pathogen to novel hosts. Vector competence can vary among populations of a given vector species and among species (Eldridge 2000). Vector – borne infectious diseases are those diseases in which the infectious agent is transmitted to the human host via an agent -- the vector. The vectors for most of the diseases likely to be observed in the U.S. are arthropods, e.g., fleas, ticks, and mosquitoes. Notable examples of vector-borne diseases include malaria, which is transmitted to humans via mosquitoes, and bubonic plague, which is transmitted via infected fleas. (Plague is also transmitted directly from animals to animals, including humans, as a respiratory disease.) Yellow fever – An infectious tropical disease caused by an arbovirus transmitted by mosquitoes of the genera Aedes, especially A. aegypti, and Haemagogus and characterized by high fever, jaundice, and often gastrointestinal hemorrhaging. Zoonotic –A disease of animals that can be transmitted to humans. 160
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Using Remote Sensing, Ecological Ni
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DEDICATION This is dedicated to my
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Lastly, I would like to thank all o
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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ................
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LIST OF FIGURES Figures Page 2.1 Kn
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AUC - Area Under the Curve LIST OF
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ABSTRACT USING REMOTE SENSING, ECOL
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Keywords Rift Valley fever, risk as
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systematically inventory and monito
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populations), human demographics an
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The geographic distribution of pote
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human and animal health, economic l
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1.8 ORGANIZATION OF DISSERTATION Th
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(e.g., ether, chloroform), detergen
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(Imam et al. 1979, Davies and Marti
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have demonstrated that wild ruminan
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flooding of grassland depressions c
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and created mosquito breeding habit
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may transmit the RVF virus mechanic
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virus during inter-epizootic period
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grown by nearly 9% per year (Tatem
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animals during RVF outbreaks or col
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sufficient and continued contact be
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Environmental factors are directly
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animals could arrive in an uninfect
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GIS technology and RS data has been
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NDVI is calculated as a normalized
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In September 2006, the RVF forecast
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In the U.S. RVF is not present and
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changes in mosquito populations in
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hosts that are widely dispersed thr
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mountain range of the Appalachian M
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The land area of Hampton Roads incl
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52 Table 3.1. Primary data sets and
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Table 3.2. Sources of Virginia mosq
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Figure 3.3. Cattle Density in Virgi
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Figure 3.6. 2006 Deer Abundance Est
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Land-Cover Global land-cover data a
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Figure 3.8. Virginia Land-cover Nor
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Figure 3.9. June 2006 Normalized Di
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Table 3.4. Worldclim interpolated c
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3.2.5 DATA PROCESSING All data sets
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normalize differences among surveil
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for three regions of Virginia - Nor
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Correlation analyses The Pearson‟
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of maximum entropy (i.e., that is m
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When test data are available, MaxEn
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Algebra tool in the ArcGIS Spatial
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CHAPTER 4. RESULTS 4.1 POTENTIAL RV
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1. If a native U.S. vector can tran
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Bioecology of Species Selected for
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ditches, animal waste lagoons, and
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90 Mosquito Species Typical Habitat
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The majority of mosquitoes were col
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Table 4.5. Virginia competent vecto
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4.3 MOSQUITO DENSITY CORRELATIONS W
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102 Table 4.8. Mean and range of ea
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Regional graphical analyses In Figu
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Population Density (mean daily trap
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Page 127 and 128: Population Density (mean daily trap
Page 129 and 130: Predictor correlation analyses Whil
Page 131 and 132: temperature of the coldest month (b
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Page 135 and 136: 120 Predictor Variable Northern Vir
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Page 139 and 140: 124 The Jackknife test of variable
Page 141 and 142: 126 4.5 RISK OF RVF ESTABLISHMENT A
Page 143 and 144: 128 The weighted suitability modeli
Page 145 and 146: CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION 5.1 ENVIRONME
Page 147 and 148: heavily on rainfall as do the predo
Page 149 and 150: 5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL-CLIMATIC VARIABLE
Page 151 and 152: study; predicted suitable habitat w
Page 153 and 154: state. The high risk in this region
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Page 161 and 162: 146 APPENDIX A: RVF COMPETENT VECTO
Page 163 and 164: 148 Figure A.3. Ae. sollicitans dis
Page 165 and 166: 150 Figure A.5. Ae. triseriatus dis
Page 167 and 168: 152 Figure A.7. Cx. pipiens distrib
Page 169 and 170: 154 Figure A.9. Cx. salinarius dist
Page 171 and 172: Desiccation - drying. Diapause - ph
Page 173: Larva - immature form of certain or
Page 177 and 178: REFERENCES Ackerman GA, Giroux J. A
Page 179 and 180: Brown H, Duik-Wasser M, Andreadis T
Page 181 and 182: Diallo M, Nabeth P, Ba K, Sall AA,
Page 183 and 184: Glass GE, Cheek JE, Patz JA, Shield
Page 185 and 186: Komar O, Robbins MB, Klenk K, Blitv
Page 187 and 188: NASA Earth Observatory (EO) Measuri
Page 189 and 190: Phillips SJ, Dudík M, Schapire RE.
Page 191 and 192: Tatem AJ, Hay SI, Rogers DJ. Global
Page 193 and 194: WHO Disease Outbreak News [Internet
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