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Sheep and Cattle The most important animal species in RVF epidemics are sheep and cattle. Both sheep and cattle suffer significant mortality (e.g., greater than 90% in lambs and calves less than one week of age) and abortion (virtually 100%) after infection, and they become sufficiently viremic to infect many arthropod vector species (Peters and Linthicum 1994, House et al. 1992, EFSA 2005). Sheep are extremely susceptible to RVF virus. Onset is marked by high fever (40-42 o C). Significant clinical features in affected lambs, kids, and adult sheep also include listlessness, weakness, anorexia, rapid respiration, excessive salivation, vomiting, fetid diarrhea, and abortion (Daubney et al. 1931, House et al. 1992). In older lambs and adults, the incubation period is between 24 and 72 hours, and the mortality rate is 20-30% (House et al. 1992). The most severe reactions occur in newborn lambs and kids which die within hours of infection, rarely surviving more than 36 hours (Linthicum et al. 2008). Cattle are less severely affected with RVF than sheep. Adult cattle exhibit clinical signs of disease infrequently, but some may develop acute disease with clinical features similar to those of sheep. Frequently abortion is the only manifestation in this species. The mortality rate in native adult non-pregnant cattle does not usually exceed 10 percent (House et al. 1992). In calves, jaundice is more frequent and death occurs in 2 to 8 days. Demonstrated mortality rates in calves are generally lower than in lambs and vary widely (20-70%) between outbreaks (Peters and Linthicum 1994, House et al. 1992, OIE 2008). Goats Goats are generally less severely affected than sheep (e.g., 1977-78 Egyptian outbreak), with much lower morbidity and mortality, fewer abortions, and less severe clinical signs 13
(Imam et al. 1979, Davies and Martin 2003). Abortion in goats and mortality in kids were recorded in Kenya in 1930, the Sudan in 1973, South Africa and Namibia in 1974-75, and in West Africa in 1987 (EFSA 2005). Older kids and goats may develop inapparent, peracute or acute disease (OIE 2008). Table 2.2 summarizes the characteristics of RVF disease in cattle, sheep, and goats. Table 2.2. Characteristics of RVF disease in cattle, sheep, and goats. * Feature Characteristics Incubation Period Clinical signs/symptoms Case-fatality Rate * Adapted from Linthicum et al. 2008. Camels Cattle Sheep and Goats 1-6 days Lambs: 12-36 hr Adults: 1-6 days • Fever of 40°-42°C, anorexia and • Fever of 40°-42°C, anorexia and weakness, listlessness, evident weakness, listlessness, evident abdominal pain abdominal pain • Calves: depression, icterus, evident • Lambs: evident abdominal pain abdominal pain • Adults: nasal discharge, • Adults: frequently asymptomatic, vomiting, diarrhea, icterus, excessive salivation, diarrhea, fall in abortion rates can reach 100% milk yield, nasal discharge, near 100% • Complications can include abortion hepatitis, cerebral infections, ocular infections • Calves: 10%-70% • Lambs: 20% (>1 wk of age) to • Adults:
Page 1 and 2: Using Remote Sensing, Ecological Ni
Page 3 and 4: DEDICATION This is dedicated to my
Page 5 and 6: Lastly, I would like to thank all o
Page 7 and 8: CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ................
Page 9 and 10: LIST OF FIGURES Figures Page 2.1 Kn
Page 11 and 12: AUC - Area Under the Curve LIST OF
Page 13 and 14: ABSTRACT USING REMOTE SENSING, ECOL
Page 15 and 16: Keywords Rift Valley fever, risk as
Page 17 and 18: systematically inventory and monito
Page 19 and 20: populations), human demographics an
Page 21 and 22: The geographic distribution of pote
Page 23 and 24: human and animal health, economic l
Page 25 and 26: 1.8 ORGANIZATION OF DISSERTATION Th
Page 27: (e.g., ether, chloroform), detergen
Page 31 and 32: have demonstrated that wild ruminan
Page 33 and 34: flooding of grassland depressions c
Page 35 and 36: and created mosquito breeding habit
Page 37 and 38: may transmit the RVF virus mechanic
Page 39 and 40: virus during inter-epizootic period
Page 41 and 42: grown by nearly 9% per year (Tatem
Page 43 and 44: animals during RVF outbreaks or col
Page 45 and 46: sufficient and continued contact be
Page 47 and 48: Environmental factors are directly
Page 49 and 50: animals could arrive in an uninfect
Page 51 and 52: GIS technology and RS data has been
Page 53 and 54: NDVI is calculated as a normalized
Page 55 and 56: In September 2006, the RVF forecast
Page 57 and 58: In the U.S. RVF is not present and
Page 59 and 60: changes in mosquito populations in
Page 61 and 62: hosts that are widely dispersed thr
Page 63 and 64: mountain range of the Appalachian M
Page 65 and 66: The land area of Hampton Roads incl
Page 67 and 68: 52 Table 3.1. Primary data sets and
Page 69 and 70: Table 3.2. Sources of Virginia mosq
Page 71 and 72: Figure 3.3. Cattle Density in Virgi
Page 73 and 74: Figure 3.6. 2006 Deer Abundance Est
Page 75 and 76: Land-Cover Global land-cover data a
Page 77 and 78: Figure 3.8. Virginia Land-cover Nor
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Figure 3.9. June 2006 Normalized Di
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Table 3.4. Worldclim interpolated c
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3.2.5 DATA PROCESSING All data sets
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normalize differences among surveil
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for three regions of Virginia - Nor
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Correlation analyses The Pearson‟
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of maximum entropy (i.e., that is m
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When test data are available, MaxEn
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Algebra tool in the ArcGIS Spatial
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CHAPTER 4. RESULTS 4.1 POTENTIAL RV
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1. If a native U.S. vector can tran
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Bioecology of Species Selected for
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ditches, animal waste lagoons, and
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90 Mosquito Species Typical Habitat
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The majority of mosquitoes were col
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Table 4.5. Virginia competent vecto
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4.3 MOSQUITO DENSITY CORRELATIONS W
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102 Table 4.8. Mean and range of ea
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Regional graphical analyses In Figu
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Population Density (mean daily trap
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Competent vector species were plott
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Predictor correlation analyses Whil
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temperature of the coldest month (b
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data. Mosquito populations tend to
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120 Predictor Variable Northern Vir
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122 was 0.003. At this threshold, t
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124 The Jackknife test of variable
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126 4.5 RISK OF RVF ESTABLISHMENT A
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128 The weighted suitability modeli
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CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION 5.1 ENVIRONME
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heavily on rainfall as do the predo
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5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL-CLIMATIC VARIABLE
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study; predicted suitable habitat w
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state. The high risk in this region
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The results of this study indicate
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It is recommended that species dive
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individually and over smaller time
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146 APPENDIX A: RVF COMPETENT VECTO
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148 Figure A.3. Ae. sollicitans dis
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150 Figure A.5. Ae. triseriatus dis
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152 Figure A.7. Cx. pipiens distrib
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154 Figure A.9. Cx. salinarius dist
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Desiccation - drying. Diapause - ph
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Larva - immature form of certain or
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Vector competence - the vector comp
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REFERENCES Ackerman GA, Giroux J. A
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Brown H, Duik-Wasser M, Andreadis T
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Diallo M, Nabeth P, Ba K, Sall AA,
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Glass GE, Cheek JE, Patz JA, Shield
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Komar O, Robbins MB, Klenk K, Blitv
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NASA Earth Observatory (EO) Measuri
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Phillips SJ, Dudík M, Schapire RE.
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Tatem AJ, Hay SI, Rogers DJ. Global
Page 193 and 194:
WHO Disease Outbreak News [Internet
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