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Table 2 Principles of carbohydrate measurement Carbohydrate Types and dietary occurrence Extraction and isolation Hydrolysis and quantification Sugars The main dietary sources are Fruit and vegetables: sucrose, glucose, fructose Milk and dairy: lactose, galactose Added sugars: mainly sucrose, glucose, fructose Starch Starch: consists of a-1–4-, a-1–6-linked glucose, as amylose (short linear chains) and amylopectin (larger, more branched molecules). Principle sources are cereal grain, legumes and tubers. Maltodextrins: Mainly from hydrolysed starch. RS: defined as ‘the starch and starch degradation products that on average resist digestion in the small intestine’. Starchy foods have a range of physicochemical characteristics, influencing their rate and extent of digestion. NSP NSP are a grouping of several types of polysaccharide that do not have the a 1–4 glucosidic linkage characteristic of starch. Intrinsic plant cell-wall NSP: this component is defined as Dietary Fibre as it consistent reflect the health benefits of plant-rich diets. Other NSP: usually added extracts. RSCC Fructans: Natural inulin (e.g., onions) and fructooligosaccarides from hydrolysed inulin or synthesized. a-Galactosides: Sucrose with galactose units, raffinose ( þ 1), stachyose ( þ 2), verbascose ( þ 3). Other RSCC: Mainly manufactured by synthesis or by polysaccharide hydrolysis. Examples are galacto- and xylooligosaccharides, resistant maltodextrins, polydextrose. Polyols (sugar alcohols) Occur naturally in small amounts. Manufactured and added to foods. heating step at 1001 C for the gelatinization of starch granules and treatment with either dimethyl sulphoxide or sodium/potassium hydroxide for the dispersion of RS (Englyst et al., 1982, 1992). It is the physico-chemical characteristics that make the enzymatic digestion of starch nutritionally interesting, and more challenging to deal with appropriately from an analytical perspective. The rate and extent that starch is hydrolysed is determined by the accessibility of the amylolytic enzymes, which explains why food processing, sample Nutritional characterization and measurement of dietary carbohydrates K Englyst et al Recovered by aqueous extraction and can be further isolated from other macronutrients in an 80% ethanol fraction. Total starch including maltodextrins: Majority dispersed in aqueous conditions. Some high amylose and retrograded starch requires chemical dispersion. Maltodextrins: Conveniently isolated as the a-glucans (DP43) soluble in 80% ethanol. RS: isolated from samples prepared ‘as eaten’ with digestible starch removed by conditions that correlate with in vivo data. For all starch fractions glucose from sugars must be accounted for. NSP is isolated by the dispersion and enzymatic hydrolysis of starch, which is then removed along with sugars by precipitating the NSP in 80% ethanol. Fructans: Aqueous extraction. Need to account for glucose and fructose, including that from sucrose. a-Galactosides: Aqueous extraction. If determined as monosaccharide components need to account for glucose, fructose and galactose. Other RSCC: Aqueous extraction and isolation from polysaccharides in an 80% ethanol fraction. Sugars, sugar alcohols, maltodextrins, fructans and raffinose family must be accounted for. Polyols are easily extracted in aqueous conditions. Monosaccharides and disaccharides can be determined specifically by chromatography. Enzyme linked colorimetric assays can measure individual monosaccharides. Starch and its components are determined as glucose released by enzymatic hydrolysis applying a hydration factor of 0.9. Total starch including maltodextrins: Measured as the sum of glucose released following complete dispersion of starch Maltodextrins: Measured as glucose released from the a-glucans (DP43) soluble in an 80% ethanol. RS: measured as glucose released from RS fraction following physical and alkali dispersion. Following acid hydrolysis NSP constituent sugars are determined individually by chromatography or as a total by a colorimetric assay. Dietary fibre: For the majority of products total NSP provides a measure of dietary fibre Other NSP: Should be accounted for separately from dietary fibre. Identified by NSP sugar profiles. Fructans: Hydrolysed by fructanase and measured as fructose (and glucose) components. a-galactosides: Determined specifically by chromatography or alternatively hydrolysed enzymatically and measured as their components. Other RSCC: Determined as the monosaccharide components released by enzymatic or acid hydrolysis. Intact species can be determined by chromatography, but is less specific. Polyols can be determined directly by chromatography. Abbreviations: DP, degree of polymerization; NSP, non-starch polysaccharides; RS, resistant starch; RSCC, resistant short-chain carbohydrates. preparation and analytical methodology can all influence various aspects of starch determination. The influence of the physico-chemical characteristics of foods on starch digestibility can be described by measuring the rate and extent of glucose released by amylolytic enzymes under in vitro conditions controlled for pH, temperature, viscosity and mixing (Englyst et al., 1992). The terms rapidly available glucose and slowly available glucose are used to describe rate of release characteristics and their physiological relevance has been confirmed by the S23 European Journal of Clinical Nutrition
S24 Table 3 Carbohydrate digestibility fractions for a selection of foods Food g/100 g as eaten SAG in % Fru RAG SAG RS available CHO Long grain rice (brown) 0.0 17.2 12.5 1.7 42.2 Rice pudding (canned) 2.5 10.9 0.2 0.2 1.7 Spaghetti 0.2 17.4 13.0 1.8 42.4 Wholemeal spaghetti 0.3 18.1 9.4 0.9 33.8 Brown bread 0.3 41.9 1.3 2.3 3.0 Wholemeal bread 0.4 35.5 1.5 1.9 3.9 Rye bread 1.7 27.5 5.1 2.8 15.0 Swiss roll 16.4 41.5 1.0 1.5 1.7 Crispbread-rye 1.6 59.5 5.4 2.5 8.1 Oatcakes 0.7 47.8 8.4 2.6 14.7 Water biscuit crackers 0.9 72.7 5.1 0.2 6.5 Digestive biscuits 4.8 44.2 11.4 1.1 18.9 Shortbread 8.2 31.1 21.9 1.8 35.7 Corn flakes 3.8 81.7 2.5 3.6 2.8 Muesli 17.1 38.6 4.7 1.3 7.8 Shredded wheat 1.2 68.7 2.8 2.4 3.9 Potato salad 1.7 8.0 2.1 1.0 17.8 Boiled potatoes 0.6 13.9 0.4 0.5 2.6 Potato crisps 0.2 50.7 1.8 1.0 3.4 Chick peas 0.5 4.2 11.7 3.5 71.0 Green split peas 0.5 6.9 8.7 3.4 54.2 Red kidney beans 0.8 6.4 8.3 3.4 53.3 Haricot beans 0.4 4.6 7.9 3.6 61.1 Baked beans 5.7 11.9 1.8 1.8 9.5 Sweetcorn 1.5 13.2 4.0 0.6 21.4 demonstration of strong correlations between their content in foods with glycaemic response and GI values (Englyst et al., 1999, 2003). Table 3 shows the carbohydrate-release characteristics for a range of products. Determination of resistant carbohydrates Polyols (sugar alcohols). The polyols are hydrogenated carbohydrates, which include sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol and maltitol. Typically, there is only a small intake of naturally occurring polyols, principally in the form of sorbitol from apples and pears. However, the various types of polyols can be manufactured and are used as sugar replacers, which can be present in large amounts in some products, particularly ‘sugar-free’ confectionery. Different polyol types can be absorbed and metabolized to varying extents, although a proportion of most polyols enters the large intestine as fermentation substrates (Livesey, 2003). As it is not practical to encompass the varied fate of polyols within a classification scheme, polyols are usually considered within the resistant carbohydrate grouping. The sugar alcohols are easily extracted in aqueous or ethanol fractions and can be measured directly by HPLC. They are more stable than sugars in alkali conditions, a feature that can be utilized to isolate and measure sugar alcohols specifically by gas chromatography without interference from sugars (Quigley et al., 1999). European Journal of Clinical Nutrition Nutritional characterization and measurement of dietary carbohydrates K Englyst et al Resistant short-chain carbohydrates. This fraction encompasses all fructans, and the resistant carbohydrates that are soluble in 80% ethanol, other than the sugar alcohols. The resistant short-chain carbohydrate term was developed in order not to be constricted by the chemical definition of oligosaccharides as degree of polymerization (DP) 3–9, as molecules of considerably higher DP may be included, depending on branching (Englyst and Hudson, 1996; Quigley et al., 1999). The terms non-digestible oligosaccharides and resistant oligosaccharides are synonymous with the RSCC term and in practice all describe the same substances. This diverse group of substances are typically consumed in only small amounts from naturally occurring sources, principally as fructans present in onions, Jerusalem artichoke, wheat and chicory, and as the small a-galactosides (raffinose family) from legumes, with more complex galactooligosacchides found in breast milk. A range of resistant oligosaccharides have also been developed as functional ingredients. There is a need to have a consistent approach to the determination of all RSCCs, so that their dietary content and relevance can be identified, and to prevent the potential for gaps in carbohydrate classification and measurement. There are several approaches to the determination of RSCC depending on the chemical characteristics of the individual species. It is convenient to measure fructans as their fructose and glucose constituents after specific hydrolysis with fructanase (EC 3.2.1.7) (McCleary et al., 2000). The a-galactosides can either be determined individually by chromatography or by their monosaccharide constituents after enzymatic hydrolysis with a-galactosidase (EC 3.2.1.22) and a-glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.20) (Vinjamoori et al., 2004). Other RSCC can be measured by a single method based on the acid hydrolysis of RSCC isolated in an 80% ethanol extract and determination of constituent sugars by gas chromatography (Quigley et al., 1999). This approach is suitable for the determination of a wide range of substances, including, but not restricted to isomalto-oligosaccharides, xylo-oligosaccharides, galacto-oligosaccharides and resistant maltodextrins. There are also methods for the determination of RSCC by the chromatographic separation of intact species. However, as discussed later, this type of method can lack specificity and there is the possibility of overlap between different methods, which would lead to double counting and an overestimate of the total RSCC content. Non-starch polysaccharides. This group of carbohydrates is defined as the polysaccharides that do not contain the a-1–4linked glucose that is characteristic of starch. There are various types of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) that differ in their sugar composition and glycosidic linkages, which are important features in determining their physico-chemical properties. The NSP present in plant cell walls have a structural function in defining the integrity of plant cells and tissues. NSP can also occur as gums and mucilages, some
Page 5 and 6: Comision Federal de la mejora regul
Page 7 and 8: Subject: MEXICO - Comments on PROY
Page 9 and 10: Item of PROY‐ NOM‐051 A.3.1 & A
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Page 36 and 37: REVIEW Carbohydrate terminology and
Page 38 and 39: Table 2 Energy and macronutrient in
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Page 42 and 43: Table 3 Principal physiological pro
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Page 50 and 51: REVIEW Nutritional characterization
Page 52 and 53: Table 1 Nutritional characterizatio
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Page 66 and 67: similar to the situation with sugar
Page 68 and 69: company working on dietary carbohyd
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Page 94 and 95: Table 5 Effect of NSP (dietary fibr
Page 96 and 97: As already described, almost any ca
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Prentice AM, Poppitt SD (1996). Imp
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REVIEW Carbohydrate intake and obes
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Total carbohydrate intake Introduct
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composition of the diet did not sub
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European Journal of Clinical Nutrit
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postmenopausal US women (Howard et
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weight loss was greater after 6 mon
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European Journal of Clinical Nutrit
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its carbohydrate content, whereas a
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Table 4 Continued Duration Interven
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Despite a substantially lower GL fo
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increased physical activity has bee
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with normal glucose tolerance: the
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Westerterp KR, Verboeket-van de Ven
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especially the NSP, complicates com
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1.21, 1.35, 1.40 and 1.64. The patt
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esidual confounding provide the jus
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carbohydrate have generated broadly
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There is no good evidence of benefi
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Meyer KA, Kushi LH, Jacobs Jr DR, S
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from prospective studies which have
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Table 3 Prospective studies of diet
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of sucrose-containing foods, such a
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Acrylamide Acrylamide is a chemical
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Nicodemus KK, Jacobs Jr DR, Folsom
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carbohydrate and fat may have a low
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Foods having very different nutrien
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esearch activities and food selecti
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highest satiety score was boiled po
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patients: a new basis for carbohydr
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and lipid levels, to a greater exte
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insufficient for the use of glycaem
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Dr Hans Englyst: Director and share
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Annex 1.4: US‐FDA GRAS Notificati
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FDA/CFSAN/OFAS: Agency Response Let
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Annex 1.5: US Health Claims Regulat
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jlentini on PROD1PC65 with RULES 30
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Annex 1.6: “PalatinoseTM (isomalt
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Isomaltulose is tooth friendly, unl
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CONFIDENTIAL Regulatory Affairs & N
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CONFIDENTIAL General or usual name:
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CONFIDENTIAL Plasma glucose change
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CONFIDENTIAL Rise in blood glucose
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CONFIDENTIAL References Regulatory
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Annex 1.8: Report from Imfeld (Univ
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Annex 2.2: Roberfroid, M.B., 1999;
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Annex 3.2: “Letter of no objectio
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1 Nutrition and Health Claims (CAC/
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Annex 3.2: “Letter of no objectio
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