Teacher Education and Development Study in Mathematics - IEA

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PART 1: TEACHER RELATIVE PAY AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE 47 Whatever the explanation, higher relative teacher salaries are associated with higher test scores, even when we control for other important factors associated with those higher test scores. Because our sample of countries was small, more work is needed to test whether this is a policy variable or just an indicator of something else that explains high test scores and that correlates with the ratio of teacher salaries relative to the salaries of other professions. An additional caveat is that raising teacher salaries across the board (for all teachers in the teacher labor force) in those countries with relatively low teacher salaries is an expensive policy option. A much cheaper option is to raise the salaries only of starting teachers or only of teachers with skills in short supply, such as mathematics and science. However, these alternatives may face opposition from teachers’ unions. And, as we have mentioned, any salary-increase policy involves many unknowns, such as the response rate of higher ability individuals to higher salaries in teaching. A number of analysts have argued that more spending per student on education does not produce higher student test scores (see, for example, Hanushek et al., 1994). Although the empirical foundations of this argument are highly problematic (see, for example, Rothstein & Miles, 1995), there is enough of a case against simply raising teacher salaries as a policy tool in order to improve schooling outcomes to create considerable political resistance to it. Nevertheless, the underlying notion that societies that seriously want to improve their students’ performance in school must improve the quality of teachers in schools is also compelling. It is difficult to determine how that improvement could be made other than to raise the bar that indicates the level of skills individuals must have to enter teaching. But if the bar is raised, it is also difficult to conceive of a means of attracting individuals into teaching with those high skills other than that of making teacher remuneration competitive with the remuneration offered in other professions requiring a similar level of academic skills. References Allegretto, S. A., Corcoran, S. P., & Mishel, L. (2004). How does teacher pay compare? Methodological challenges and answers. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute. Carnoy, M., Gove, A., & Marshall, J. (2007). Cuba’s academic advantage. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. Carnoy, M., Marshall, J., & Socias, M. (2003). How do school inputs influence math scores? A comparative approach. Standford, CA: Stanford School of Education (mimeo). Chiu, M. M., & and Khoo, L. (2005). Effects of resources, inequality, and privilege bias on achievement: Country, school, and student level analyses. American Educational Research Journal, 42(4), 575–603. Clotfelter, C., Ladd, H., & Vigdor, J. (2007). How and why do teachers matter for student achievement? (Working paper 12828). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Corcoran, S., Evans, W. N., & Schwab, R. S. (2002). Changing labor market opportunities for women and the quality of teachers, 1957–1992 (National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 9180). Available online at http://www.nber.org/papers/w9180. Deininger, K., & Squire, L. (1996). A new data set measuring income inequality. World Bank Economic Review, 10(3), 565–591. Ehrenberg, R., & Brewer, D. (1995). Did teachers’ verbal ability and race matter in the 1960s? Coleman revisited. Economics of Education Review, 14(1), 1–21.
48 TEACHER PAY AND STUDENT MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT Ferguson, R., & Ladd, H. (1996). How and why money matters: An analysis of Alabama schools. In H. Ladd (Ed.), Holding schools accountable: Performance-based reform in education (pp. 265–298). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Goldhaber, D., & Anthony, E. (2004). Can teacher quality be effectively assessed? Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. Hanushek, E. A. (2006). Teacher compensation. In P. Peterson (Ed.), Reforming education in Florida (pp. 149–163). Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press. Hanushek, E. A., with Benson, C. S., Freeman, R. B., Jamison, D. T., Levin, H. M., Maynard, R. A., Murname, R. J., Rivkin, S. G., Sabot, R. H., Solmon, L. C., Summers, A. A., Welch, F., & Wolfe, B. L. (1994). Making schools work: Improving performance and controlling costs. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution. Lavy, V. (2005). Performance pay and teachers’ effort, productivity and grading ethics. Jerusalem: Hebrew University. Luschei, T. F. (2005). In search of good teachers: Patterns of teacher quality in two Mexican states. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University School of Education, Stanford, CA. Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Gonzalez, E. J., & Chrostowski, S. J. (2004). TIMSS international mathematics report. Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2003). Reviews of national policies for education: Chile. Paris: Author. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2004a). Education at a glance: Education indicators 2004. Paris: Author. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2004b). Learning for tomorrow’s world. Paris: Author. Rivkin, S. G., Hanushek, E., & Kain, J. (2005). Teachers, schools, and academic achievement. Econometrica, 73(2), 417–458. Rothstein, R., & Miles, K. H. (1995). Where has all the money gone? Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute. Santibanez, L. (2002). Why we should care if teachers get As? Impact on student achievement in Mexico. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. Schmidt, W. H., McKnight, C. C., Houang, R. T., Wang, H. C., Wiley, D. E., Leland, S. C., & Wolfe, R. G. (2002). Why schools matter: A cross-national comparison of curriculum and learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Schmidt, W. H., Tatto, M. M., Bankov, K., Blömeke, S. Cedillo, T., Cogan, L., Han, S. I., Houang, R., Hsieh, F. J., Paine, L., Santillan, M., & Schwille, J. (2008). The preparation gap: Teacher education for middle school mathematics in six countries (MD21 report). East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University. Vidal, R., & Diaz, M. A. (2004). Resultados de las Pruebas PISA 2000 y 2003 en Mexico (Results of the 2000 and 2003 PISA Tests in Mexico). Mexico: Interagency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE). Willms, J. D. (2003). PISA 2000: Socioeconomic status and reading performance of French- and Italian-speaking Swiss students. Retrieved July 31, 2007, from https://auxweb.unb.ca/applications/ crisp/pdf/0303.pdf. World Bank. (2005). World development indicators. Available online at http://devdata.worldbank. org/dataonline. Wright, S. P., Horn, S., & Sanders, W. L. (1997). Teacher and classroom context effects on student achievement: Implications for teacher evaluation. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 11(1), 57–67.
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