PART 2: FRANCE 91 References Cros, F., & Ob<strong>in</strong>, J-P. (2004). Attract<strong>in</strong>g, develop<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> reta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g effective teachers: Country background report for France. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation <strong>and</strong> <strong>Development</strong> (OECD). M<strong>in</strong>istry of National <strong>Education</strong>. (2001). Note d’<strong>in</strong>formation (Information note) 01-40 (August). Paris: Author. M<strong>in</strong>istry of National <strong>Education</strong>. (2002). Repères et références statistiques (Statistical references <strong>and</strong> notes). Paris: Author. M<strong>in</strong>istry of National <strong>Education</strong>. (2008). Repères et références statistiques (Statistical references <strong>and</strong> notes). Paris: Author.
92 TEACHER PAY AND STUDENT MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT Germany <strong>Education</strong> system The German education system today is a comb<strong>in</strong>ation of the West German (Federal Republic of Germany) <strong>and</strong> the East German (German Democratic Republic) systems. <strong>Teacher</strong>s <strong>in</strong> both the FRG <strong>and</strong> the GDR were tra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> a dual system 40 years ago. Gymnasium teachers tra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> universities, <strong>and</strong> their focus was subject matter. Other teachers tra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> teacher education colleges, which had lower entry requirements than the universities <strong>and</strong> a heavier emphasis on pedagogy. In the late 1960s, the teacher education colleges were absorbed <strong>in</strong>to exist<strong>in</strong>g universities or formed nuclei of new universities <strong>in</strong> the FRG, but the traditional system cont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>in</strong> the GDR until the early 1990s, when the GDR jo<strong>in</strong>ed with the FRG. Composition of the teacher labor force Across the education system, just over 80% of primary teachers are females, but this figure decl<strong>in</strong>es to 60% <strong>in</strong> the lower-secondary schools <strong>and</strong> 43% <strong>in</strong> the upper-secondary schools. The teacher labor force <strong>in</strong> Germany is, on average, much older than <strong>in</strong> any other country <strong>in</strong> our sample, except Italy at the secondary level. In 2003, almost 50% of German teachers <strong>in</strong> primary schools <strong>and</strong> about 56% of teachers <strong>in</strong> secondary schools were over 50 years of age. Because the number of primary school students is gradually decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, teacher age distribution presents less of a problem at that level. However, secondary enrollment is still <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g, so replacement <strong>and</strong> growth of the teacher labor force may be an issue <strong>in</strong> com<strong>in</strong>g years, especially s<strong>in</strong>ce, as we shall show, teachers’ relative salaries appear to be decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. <strong>Teacher</strong> education Generally, teachers have to have a solid foundation <strong>in</strong> subject-matter studies, which they study <strong>in</strong> the university departments specializ<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the respective subjects. General educational studies are often supplemented by specializations, such as teach<strong>in</strong>g read<strong>in</strong>g, studied by prospective read<strong>in</strong>g specialists at the primary school level. The states, or l<strong>and</strong>er, are responsible for teacher certification, as well as for curricula <strong>and</strong> choice of textbooks. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the International Encyclopedia of <strong>Education</strong> (Husén & Postlethwaite, 1995, p. 2477), “University (or teacher tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g college) studies are concluded by a state-supervised exam<strong>in</strong>ation with university staff function<strong>in</strong>g as exam<strong>in</strong>ers. This is followed by an <strong>in</strong>ternship (referendariat), which <strong>in</strong>cludes supervised teach<strong>in</strong>g practice <strong>and</strong> additional coursework. This referendariat lasts two years, at the end of which there is a second exam<strong>in</strong>ation run solely by the state.” West German teachers often did not beg<strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g until they were almost 30 years old. In the former GDR, the requirements were much less dem<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g, which meant that a typical primary teacher began teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> his or her early 20s. With reunification, many GDR teacher tra<strong>in</strong>ers, researchers, curriculum specialists, <strong>and</strong> school pr<strong>in</strong>cipals lost their positions because of their cooperation with the M<strong>in</strong>istry of State Security. Reunification also led to all five East German states adopt<strong>in</strong>g the education systems of the West, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g teacher education (Halasz, Santiago, Ekholm, Matthews, & McKenzie, 2004).
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