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Women’s employment in the textile manufacturing sectors of Bangladesh and Morocco Table 13: Average remittances of respondents by migration status and age Average Remitters (%) Remittances as All respondents remittances (Tk) (%) of income* (No.) Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Garment Long-term migrant 1,033.3 600.0 51.4 33.4 34.1 25.8 35 37 Recent migrant 625.0 457.1 36.8 20.0 39.3 39.6 38 35 All 874.2 535.0 43.8 26.4 38.5 29.6 73 72 10-19 462.5 525.0 12.9 12.5 38.6 45.4 31 32 20-29 880.0 507.1 73.5 40.0 31.4 24.7 34 35 30-39 1,250.0 750.0 50.0 40.0 29.3 21.1 8 5 Others Long-term migrant 1,450.0 300.0 83.3 35.7 29.9 8.6 12 14 Recent migrant 1,200.0 - 40.0 - - - 5 - All 1,411.1 466.7 70.6 35.7 34.6 12.7 17 14 20-29 1,450.0 250.0 54.5 28.6 32.1 5.4 11 7 30-39 1,466.7 600.0 150.0 83.3 46.5 23.8 6 6 40+ 1,166.7 350.0 - - - - - - * Income here refers to average monthly wage and overtime Source: Sample survey of migrant workers of Dhaka’s formal manufacturing sector, 1996. Table 14: Percentage distribution of the sample workers by purpose of sending remittances to families of origin 132 Respondent’s category Family Education Treatment Religious Family Others All maintenance of siblings medication ceremonies maintenance remitters only only only education (No) Garment factory All migrant Male 37.5 10.0 - 10.0 35.0 2.5 40 Female 40.0 40.0 5.0 5.0 25.0 - 20 Long-term migrant Male 36.4 9.1 - 4.5 40.9 - 22 Female 30.8 23.1 7.7 7.7 30.8 - 13 Recent migrant Male 38.9 11.1 - 16.7 27.8 5.6 18 Female 57.1 14.3 - - 14.3 14.3 7 Other industries* Migrant male 16.7 8.3 - - 75.0 - 12 Migrant female 42.9 14.3 - 28.6 14.3 - 7 * As only five male respondents were classified as recent migrants, it was decided to present data from other manufacturing units as one category. Data presented here denote multiple responses. Source: Sample survey of migrant workers of Dhaka’s formal manufacturing sector, 1996.
Gender dimensions of labour migration in Dhaka city’s formal manufacturing sector IV. Coping mechanisms of migrant workers in the urban labour market and society Women factory workers are perceived by the employers surveyed as docile, hard working and ready to work long hours, in addition to having less exposure to and contacts within the urban labour market and less bargaining power than their male colleagues. The findings of the present study also point to women’s lower wages and mobility, compared to male workers, particularly in the RMG industries. It is therefore useful to examine whether there is any evidence suggesting that women workers try to improve their working conditions. 1. Demand for paid leave, higher wages and change in night duty Of the sample women workers of garment factories, 51 per cent demanded paid leave and 56 per cent bargained for higher wages (Table 15). The proportion of men who made similar demands, is slightly higher than women (63 per cent and 62 per cent respectively). Women, by comparison, outnumber their male counterparts only marginally (30 per cent versus 28 per cent) in their demand to change night duty, an area that received considerably less attention from workers of both sexes. On average women work as long as their male counterparts (11 hours per day including overtime) and also work at night without any transportation facilities, a problem discussed in more detail below. Women workers from other manufacturing units mainly asked for paid leave, and here they outnumbered their male counterparts. It should be noted that, unlike garment factories, which remain open even on weekly and public holidays for longer hours, other manufacturing industries do not differ as much from normal working hours. Workers in these manufacturing industries are less likely to bargain for higher wages because they are generally recruited on a regular basis and have contracts with the terms of employment clearly specified. Consequently, very few (3 per cent male and 7 per cent female) workers of other manufacturing industries demanded higher wages and only just over 10 per cent of the sample workers, irrespective of gender, bargained to change their night duty. Conversely, a large number of workers in garment factories are hired on a casual basis, mostly without contracts, which forces them to bargain for higher wages and better conditions. Although very few 133
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Acknowledgements Many people have b
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notwithstanding the inertia of the
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Carol Miller is a policy analyst on
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xii VII. Contribution of different
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Introduction 1 Introduction 1 Shahr
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Introduction Table 1: Basic indicat
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Introduction women have been tradit
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Introduction The chapters on Bangla
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Introduction women workers related
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Introduction participate in labour
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Introduction their bargaining power
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Introduction processing zones hypot
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Introduction IV. The case studies T
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Introduction experience in garment
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Introduction V. Conclusion Although
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Introduction improved technology. T
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Introduction References Afsar, R. (
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Introduction Household Power Relati
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Wage discrimination by gender in Mo
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