Simple Nature - Light and Matter

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A complicated circuit example 20⊲ All seven resistors in the left-hand panel of figure k are identical.Initially, the switch S is open as shown in the figure, and thecurrent through resistor A is I o . The switch is then closed. Findthe current through resistor B, after the switch is closed, in termsof I o .⊲ The second panel shows the circuit redrawn for simplicity, in theinitial condition with the switch open. When the switch is open, nocurrent can flow through the central resistor, so we may as wellignore it. I’ve also redrawn the junctions, without changing what’sconnected to what. This is the kind of mental rearranging thatyou’ll eventually learn to do automatically from experience withanalyzing circuits. The redrawn version makes it easier to seewhat’s happening with the current. Charge is conserved, so anycharge that flows past point 1 in the circuit must also flow pastpoints 2 and 3. This would have been harder to reason about byapplying the junction rule to the original version, which appearsto have nine separate junctions.In the new version, it’s also clear that the circuit has a great dealof symmetry. We could flip over each parallel pair of identical resistorswithout changing what’s connected to what, so that makesit clear that the voltage drops and currents must be equal for themembers of each pair. We can also prove this by using the looprule. The loop rule says that the two voltage drops in loop 4 mustbe equal, and similarly for loops 5 and 6. Since the resistors obeyOhm’s law, equal voltage drops across them also imply equal currents.That means that when the current at point 1 comes to thetop junction, exactly half of it goes through each resistor. Thenthe current reunites at 2, splits between the next pair, and so on.We conclude that each of the six resistors in the circuit experiencesthe same voltage drop and the same current. Applying theloop rule to loop 7, we find that the sum of the three voltage dropsacross the three left-hand resistors equals the battery’s voltage,V , so each resistor in the circuit experiences a voltage drop V /3.Letting R stand for the resistance of one of the resistors, we findthat the current through resistor B, which is the same as the currentsthrough all the others, is given by I o = V /3R.We now pass to the case where the switch is closed, as shownin the third panel. The battery’s voltage is the same as before,and each resistor’s resistance is the same, so we can still use thesame symbols V and R for them. It is no longer true, however,that each resistor feels a voltage drop V /3. The equivalent resistanceof the whole circuit is R/2 + R/3 + R/2 = 4R/3, so the totalcurrent drawn from the battery is 3V /4R. In the middle groupof resistors, this current is split three ways, so the new currentthrough B is (1/3)(3V /4R) = V /4R = 3I o /4.542 Chapter 9 Circuits
Interpreting this result, we see that it comes from two effects thatpartially cancel. Closing the switch reduces the equivalent resistanceof the circuit by giving charge another way to flow, andincreases the amount of current drawn from the battery. ResistorB, however, only gets a 1/3 share of this greater current, not1/2. The second effect turns out to be bigger than the first, andtherefore the current through resistor B is lessened over all.Discussion QuestionA We have stated the loop rule in a symmetric form where a seriesof voltage drops adds up to zero. To do this, we had to define a standardway of connecting the voltmeter to the circuit so that the plus and minussigns would come out right. Suppose we wish to restate the junction rulein a similar symmetric way, so that instead of equating the current comingin to the current going out, it simply states that a certain sum of currents ata junction adds up to zero. What standard way of inserting the ammeterwould we have to use to make this work?This chapter is summarized on page 956. Notation and terminologyare tabulated on pages 941-942.Section 9.2 Parallel and Series Circuits 543
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Fullerton, Californiawww.lightandma
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Contents0 Introduction and Review0.
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5.5 More About Heat Engines . . . .
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669.11.3 Magnetic Fields by Ampère
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The Mars Climate Orbiter is prepare
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temperatures and with many combinat
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idence that quarks have smaller par
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give clearer explanations.Finally,
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It can also be handy to have a rela
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The prefix centi-, meaning 10 −2
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goes like this:V = 1 3 Ah[1]A = πr
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the notation 10 0 to stand for one,
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calculation, 5.04 cm, was really no
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0.2 Scaling and Order-of-Magnitude
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to many times your own height. The
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g / 1. This plank is as long as it
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the front panels of the three violi
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Correct solution #4: The area of a
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here?” The scientific Mr. Spock w
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1. Don’t even attempt more than o
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Problem 10.mean, however, is define
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(d) Find the person’s acceleratio
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Albert Einstein, and his moustache,
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54 Chapter 0 Introduction and Revie
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a / Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisiera
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1.1.1 Problem-solving techniquesHow
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∆m = 0, where m is the total mass
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different substances will have diff
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c / Left: In a frame of referenceth
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f / Discussion question B.(discusse
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Self-check D.since the derivative o
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ProblemsThe symbols √ , , etc. ar
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difficult? ⊲ Solution, p. 932Key
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Heat energy can be convertedto ligh
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a new form of invisible “mystery
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f / A realistic drawing of Joule’
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numbers. With a purely numerical ap
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of gravity doesn’t change much if
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field. If the plane can start from
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m / Discussion question C.n / A hyd
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88 Chapter 2 Conservation of Energy
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A car drives over a cliff.new frame
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How long does it take to move 1 met
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a / Approximations to thebrachistoc
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a / An ellipse is circle that hasbe
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to deduce the general equation for
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to the mass of the object that inte
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The minimum velocity required for t
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and since sin θ dθ occurs in the
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that is deeper than r. Under the as
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2.3.6 ⋆ Evidence for repulsive gr
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a / A vivid demonstration thatheat
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ture. This is a very good question,
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Three functions with thesame curvat
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This looks like a cosine function,
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Problem 16.13 Anya and Ivan lean ov
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Problem 27.then we’d have U/m =
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37 Two springs with spring constant
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ExercisesExercise 2A: Reasoning wit
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128 Chapter 2 Conservation of Energ
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3.1 Momentum In One Dimensiona / Sy
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eing to the right. The initial mome
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3.1.3 Momentum compared to kinetic
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3.1.4 Collisions in one dimensiong
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could never do that again in a mill
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i / The highjumper’s body passeso
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where x 1 is the mass of the first
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3.1.6 The center of mass frame of r
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The airbag increases ∆tso as to r
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d / Two magnets exert forceson each
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x (m) t (s)10 1.8420 2.8630 3.8040
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3.2.4 Forces between solidsConserva
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Maximum acceleration of a car examp
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Discussion QuestionA Criticize the
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C A pool ball is rebounding from th
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forces, as if the hand were a pair
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This may not sound like an impressi
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stroke are both executed in straigh
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Accelerating a cart example 35If yo
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w / A wedge.x / Archimedes’ screw
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As in the preceding example, we hav
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that have the same frequency is a s
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around until I got this result, sin
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quality factor, Q, is defined as Q
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ight direction to add energy to the
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i / Example 45: a viola withouta mu
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Collapse of the Nimitz Freeway exam
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end up canceling out, however:Q =
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186 Chapter 3 Conservation of Momen
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c / Bullets are dropped and shot at
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the asteroid’s energy and boostin
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coordinate axes. Even though ∆x,
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of the three components,∆p x = 0
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A useless vector operation example
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Solving for the unknowns gives∆x
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o / Example 64.p / Adding vectors g
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How to generalize one-dimensional e
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needed to support the object in fig
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The easiest method is the one demon
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Incorrect solution #4:(same notatio
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The magnitude of the acceleration i
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dropped out like a trap door, showi
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af / Breaking trail, by WalterE. Bo
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know how to integrate with respect
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Problem 16.Problem 19.resistance.)1
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of gravity on Mars.(a) Find the tim
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partner force. (a) A swimmer speeds
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Problem 45the 0.4-gram masses would
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53 If you walk 35 km at an angle 25
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(b) Interpret this equation in the
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Problem 71.232 Chapter 3 Conservati
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77 A car accelerates from rest. At
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Problem 81.81 Complete example 71 o
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ExercisesExercise 3A: Force and Mot
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Exercise 3C: Worksheet on Resonance
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Exercise 3D: Vectors and MotionEach
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244 Chapter 3 Conservation of Momen
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An overhead view of apiece of putty
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inward toward the hinge will have n
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special case, we can choose to visu
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j / Two asteroids collide.k / Every
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Note that although the factors of 2
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Relationship between force and torq
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is straight down, which is perpendi
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⊲ All three objects in the figure
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aa / Example 10.to either side of e
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momentum tells us that L = mrv sin
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In the absence of any torque, a rig
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Radial acceleration at the surface
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The parallel axis theorem example 1
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differential. The result isarea ===
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of inertia as if the object was smo
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h / Moments of inertia of somegeome
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4.3 Angular Momentum In Three Dimen
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14 deg, and it points along an axis
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manner like this, then the definiti
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k / Example 27.torque to the left w
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We can also generalize the plane-ro
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Problem 1.Problem 6.Problem 8.Probl
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14 (a) The bar of mass m is attache
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Problem 22.22 The sun turns on its
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35 The nucleus 168 Er (erbium-168)
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ExercisesExercise 4A: TorqueEquipme
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pesky set of constraints on heat en
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mit more air into the cavity behind
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Pressure of lava underneath a volca
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h / A simplified version of anideal
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for us to construct a simple connec
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For the first time we have an inter
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a / 1. The temperature differencebe
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Carnot engines operating between a
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from A to B, he lets it by, but whe
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B When we run the Carnot engine in
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f / A phase space for a singleatom
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time, the energy sharing is very un
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will the the one that maximizes the
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If the gas is monoatomic, then we k
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5.4.4 The arrow of time, or “this
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5.4.6 Summary of the laws of thermo
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may be in the form of microscopic d
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significant amount of heat to flow
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while the smaller area under the bo
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7 (a) Determine the ratio between t
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338 Chapter 5 Thermodynamics
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end of this book, we’ll even see
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c / As the wave pattern passes the
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the wave move ahead faster and get
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k / Hitting a key on a pianocauses
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Our final result for the speed of t
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care, because the delay is the same
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An easy way to visualize this is in
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can be constructed as a superpositi
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⊲ Looking up the speed of light i
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scientists, to speak of the Big Ban
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6.2 Bounded WavesSpeech is what sep
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d / An uninverted reflection. There
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our intuitive expectation of strong
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valid solutions. In the following s
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j / In the mirror image, theareas o
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m / A pulse bounces backand forth.i
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q / Graphs of loudness versusfreque
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s / Standing waves on a rope. (PSSC
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“cavity” and “neck” parts o
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Problem 5.Problem 8.5 The figure sh
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Problem 16.16 A Fabry-Perot interfe
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c / Newton’s laws do not distingu
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f / The correspondence principlereq
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d / A Galilean version of therelati
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g / Three types of transformations
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system, velocities are always unitl
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p / Apparatus used for the testof r
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sumption, the assumption that it ma
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at rest relative to the water. But
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7.2.4 No action at a distanceThe Ne
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so that Alice can complete her moti
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time into different regions accordi
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position relative to the sun at exa
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7.2.7 ⋆ Four-vectors and the inne
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would depend on the relative veloci
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7.3 DynamicsSo far we have said not
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In this frame, as expected, the sma
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But this whole argument was based o
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meters per second, so converting to
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Expressing γ as ( 1 − v 2 /c 2)
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7.3.4 ⋆ ProofsThis optional secti
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these lines. For example, a car sit
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An Einstein’s ring. Thedistant ob
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two-dimensional universe as if it w
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h / 1. A ray of light is emittedupw
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object that that isn’t influenced
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it impossible for any observer to b
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a variant on the Penrose singularit
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in it. Instead, it is currently spe
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2 Astronauts in three different spa
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(d) Simplify your answer to part c
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Problem 25b. Redrawn fromVan Baak,
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ExercisesExercise 7A: The Michelson
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Exercise 7B: Sports in Slowlightlan
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448 Chapter 7 Relativity
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Exercise 7D: Misconceptions about R
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452 Chapter 7 Relativity
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sun, moon, stars, and planets were
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Two types of chargeWe can easily co
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the other acquires an equal amount
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to get the beam up to speed in the
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telling us that we know about matte
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the muddle. The row-and-column sche
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the force of air friction canceled
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ectly evaluate the implications of
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that they were indeed electrically
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C Thomson found that the m/q of an
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the object with a net positive char
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thickness of material the radioacti
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It was already known that although
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particle. It turned out that it was
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For example they could easily strip
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cording to Mosely, the atomic numbe
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that fly off to see what was inside
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solution was found by measuring the
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o / A nuclear power plant at Catten
Page 492 and 493: neutrons. In a nuclear fission bomb
Page 494 and 495: We can now list all four of the kno
Page 496 and 497: 1. Our sun’s source of energy is
Page 498 and 499: a / The known nuclei, represented o
Page 500 and 501: killed, because the DNA becomes una
Page 502 and 503: e / Wild Przewalski’s horsesprosp
Page 504 and 505: Problem 1. Top: A realisticpicture
Page 506 and 507: 12 The subatomic particles called m
Page 508 and 509: ExercisesExercise 8A: Nuclear decay
Page 510 and 511: saxophone, every technological tool
Page 512 and 513: Example 1Ions moving across a cell
Page 514 and 515: ut the original meaning was to trav
Page 516 and 517: Force depends only on position. Sin
Page 518 and 519: Here are a few questions and answer
Page 520 and 521: flow through it.For many substances
Page 522 and 523: superconductivity in metals that wo
Page 524 and 525: j / Example 9. In 1 and 2,charges t
Page 526 and 527: look like the usual resistor. The f
Page 528 and 529: 9.1.5 Current-conducting properties
Page 530 and 531: attery acid becomes depleted of hyd
Page 532 and 533: 9.2 Parallel and Series CircuitsIn
Page 534 and 535: to each resistance, resulting inI t
Page 536 and 537: where “...” means that the sum
Page 538 and 539: the two resistors in figure h/3.We
Page 540 and 541: Choice of high voltage for power li
Page 544 and 545: Problem 2.ProblemsThe symbols √ ,
Page 546 and 547: Problem 16.only count that as one u
Page 548 and 549: knob turned all the way clockwise,
Page 550 and 551: A printed circuit board, likethe ki
Page 552 and 553: ExercisesExercise 9A: Voltage and C
Page 554 and 555: Exercise 9C: Reasoning About Circui
Page 556 and 557: 556 Chapter 9 Circuits
Page 558 and 559: a / A bar magnet’s atoms are(part
Page 560 and 561: defined. The ship’s captain can m
Page 562 and 563: Reduction in gravity on Io due to J
Page 564 and 565: j / Example 3.self-check AFind an e
Page 566 and 567: a dipole moment — they are define
Page 568 and 569: 10.2.1 One dimensionVoltage is elec
Page 570 and 571: The interpretation is that if you b
Page 572 and 573: Figure c shows some examples of way
Page 574 and 575: For large values of d, this express
Page 576 and 577: where Q is the total charge of the
Page 578 and 579: g / Example 12: variation of the fi
Page 580 and 581: corners to the disk and transform i
Page 582 and 583: 10.4 Energy In Fieldsa / Two opposi
Page 584 and 585: self-check DWe can think of the qua
Page 586 and 587: of the inward field contributed by
Page 588 and 589: space, 2 while charge doesn’t, we
Page 590 and 591: a / The symbol for a capacitor.b /
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ounding each capacitor will be half
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in time:x ↔ qv ↔ Iself-check GH
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due to its own momentum. It perform
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or|V | =∣ LdIdt ∣ ,which in man
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the inductor resists such a sudden
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Example 26.Death by solenoid; spark
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ordering.( 1 √2+√ i ) 2 = √ 1
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x / The complex number e iφlies on
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Figure aa shows a useful way to vis
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Inductors tend to be big, heavy, ex
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The reason for using the trig ident
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a purely inductive or capacitive lo
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Resonance with damping example 33
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orE outward, on side 1 A + E outwar
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|E| = kq totalr 2 ,where r is the r
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y considering its point charges ind
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Discussion Questionsg / Discussion
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with charge, change the Coulomb con
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The symmetry between the two sides
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where dv is the volume of the cube.
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The three terms in the divergence a
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Problem 19.Problem 20.proton, for e
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the lightning strike.(b) Based on y
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units.(b) Verify that RC has units
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lating freely (without any driving
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ExercisesExercise 10A: Field Vector
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5. Now hook up the two solenoids in
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A large current is createdby shorti
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time I used it implicitly was in fi
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f / A standard dipole madefrom a sq
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and substituting q = λh and v = m/
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o / Magnetic forces cause abeam of
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electric field, a magnetic one, can
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u / In this scene from SwanLake, th
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so the total field in the z directi
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For the y component, we havee / A s
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We can pin down the result even mor
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i / The field of a dipole.where r i
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circulates around the y axis, so at
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to be, not where it is now. Coulomb
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We have found one specific example
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to a flagpole, we can cancel out a
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11.4 Ampère’s Law In Differentia
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y evaluating the field at the midpo
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i.e.,F = axˆx + byˆx + cˆx + dx
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k / A summary of the derivative, gr
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c / Detail from Ascending andDescen
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the magnet. Are these atomic curren
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field in her region of space has be
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A changing magnetic flux makes a cu
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nearly zero. By Faraday’s law, th
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c / An Ampèrian surface superimpos
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and Maxwell’s equations becomeΦ
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k / Red and blue light travelat the
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second, the zero-point is located a
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is the magnitude of the momentum ve
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Discussion question A.Discussion qu
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only penetrates to a very small dep
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elationship D = ɛE would actually
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esulting in cancellation.The opposi
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a low permeability, while the other
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n / A fluxgate compass.is externall
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6 Two parallel wires of length L ca
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an instant at the upper right, but
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Problem 25.20 Four long wires are a
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Problem 35.Problem 37.32 Verify Amp
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Problem 42.beam of light usually co
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(c) Discuss the relationship betwee
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(f) Use conservation of energy to r
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5. Now position yourself with your
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12.1.1 The nature of lightThe cause
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An image of Jupiter andits moon Io
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d / Two self-portraits of theauthor
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ultimate truth about light, but the
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• There is a tendency to conceptu
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self-check AEach of these diagrams
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m / Discussion question B.Discussio
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12.2 Images by ReflectionInfants ar
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Discussion QuestionA The figure sho
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down magnification is AB/DE. A repe
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i / A Newtonian telescopebeing used
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B Locate the images formed by two p
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12.3 Images, QuantitativelyIt sound
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⊲ The object and image angles are
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12.3.2 Other cases with curved mirr
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signs also have to be memorized for
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h / A diverging mirror in the shape
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j / Spherical mirrors are thecheape
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general type of eye that we share w
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shown on this graph and then attemp
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the mechanical model would predict
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that your calculator will flash an
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D Classify the examples shown in fi
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12.4.6 ⋆ Microscopic description
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12.5 Wave OpticsElectron microscope
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of a crystal? Sound waves are used
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j / Thomas Youngk / Double-slit dif
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object that diffracts it, so the tr
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Although the equation λ/d = sin θ
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things we’ve learned about diffra
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apidly changing distances; on reuni
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6 The figure on the next page shows
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14 Here’s a game my kids like to
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27 Suppose a converging lens is con
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same depth, but not quite. [Check:
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Problem 42.42 Panel 1 of the figure
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46 The figure below shows two diffr
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53 The beam of a laser passes throu
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Problem 59.the ancient problem of i
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3. Now imagine the following new si
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Exercise 12B: Object and Image Dist
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Exercise 12D: Double-Source Interfe
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Exercise 12E: Single-slit diffracti
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Exercise 12F: Diffraction of LightE
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energy, instead of being spread out
Page 824 and 825:
correlated. If they have been playi
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small.The statement that the rule f
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But the y axis can no longer be a u
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for a long time once it gets there,
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j / Calibration of the 14 C dating
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given by(probability of a ≤ x ≤
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k / In recent decades, a huge hole
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A wave is partially absorbed.c / A
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f / The hamster in her hamsterball
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How would you extract h from the gr
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F Does E = hf imply that a photon c
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of approaching this issue.)j / Bull
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We assume v is small enough so that
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the probability distribution will b
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trons that we have already used for
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equations of general validity are t
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wave carries high probability and w
Page 858 and 859:
An infinite sine wave can only tell
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momentum implies a definite kinetic
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of snapshots would amount to a desc
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close are the electrons to the limi
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dimensional particle in a box, and
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Applying this to conservation of en
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the probability of making it throug
Page 872 and 873:
Three dimensionsFor simplicity, we
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1. Oscillations can go backand fort
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C The figure shows a skateboarder t
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a / Eight wavelengths fit aroundthi
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As shown by these examples, the unc
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e / The three states of the hydroge
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f / The energy levels of a particle
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∂r/∂x = x/r comes in handy. Com
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50% of its time in each atom. It’
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tus to the z axis) and more memorab
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ut why does that have anything to d
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the data are only inaccurate due to
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14 The photoelectric effect can occ
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Problem 25.(b) Sketch a graph showi
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conservation of energy and momentum
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Problem 43.43 On pp. 884-885 of sub
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ExercisesExercise 13A: Quantum Vers
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⊲ First we convert the equation i
Page 908 and 909:
Programming With PythonThe purpose
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Appendix 2: MiscellanyUnphysical
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18 bestt = t19 c1 = bestc120 c2 = b
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p i + ∑ iThe spin theoremTheorem:
Page 916 and 917:
Appendix 3: Photo CreditsExcept as
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Appendix 4: Hints and SolutionsHint
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Hints for Chapter 6Page 377, proble
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Answers to Self-Checks for Chapter
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Page 301: (1) Not valid. The equati
Page 926 and 927:
Page 584:N −1 m −2 C 2 V 2 m
Page 928 and 929:
the dashed ray.Page 748: You should
Page 930 and 931:
direction it was initially going (i
Page 932 and 933:
Page 52, problem 38: The cone of mi
Page 934 and 935:
Page 224, problem 37: (a) Spring co
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object, we have static friction, wh
Page 938 and 939:
Page 549, problem 29:(a) Conservati
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Page 798, problem 19: (a) The objec
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.0.8 Notation and unitsquantity uni
Page 944 and 945:
surfaces. For comparison, a typical
Page 946 and 947:
elations:a = ∆v∆tx = 1 2 at2 +
Page 948 and 949:
we are moving along with the projec
Page 950 and 951:
the number of oscillations required
Page 952 and 953:
In general, the cross product of ve
Page 954 and 955:
Sound waves consist of increases an
Page 956 and 957:
signs for charge is that with this
Page 958 and 959:
know that there is a delay in time
Page 960 and 961:
is related byΦ = 4πkq into the ch
Page 962 and 963:
to use sophisticated models such as
Page 964 and 965:
Chapter 13, Quantum Physics, page 8
Page 966 and 967:
oth position and momentum, the Heis
Page 968 and 969:
Schrödinger’s, 864cathode rays,
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unstable, 87equipartition theorem,
Page 972 and 973:
Joule, James, 73paddlewheel experim
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Einstein’s early theory, 838energ
Page 976 and 977:
Nikola, 178tesla (unit), 652thermal
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Simple Nature - Light and Matter

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