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PANEL REPORT: SUBSURFACE CHARACTERIZATIONFigure 14. Simulated groundwater residence time distributions from the midpoint of selected well screens for eachof the 10 realizations, Kings River alluvial fan aquifer system, CA (Weissmann et al. 2002). Local mixing ofgroundwater age is ubiquitous and more extreme than previously thought. Models show that the same phenomenonoccurs at greater depth, but potentially with far greater ranges in ages. Predominantly old water (e.g., 10 3 y) thatcontains a young fraction (e.g., 10 1 -10 2 y) is a direct indication of preferential flow. The travel time distributions aretypically non-symmetric (non-Fickian). Weissmann, G.S., Yong, Z., LaBolle, E.M., and Fogg, G.E. (2002).Dispersion of groundwater age in an alluvial aquifer system. Water Resources Research 38(10), 16.1–16.8.Copyright © 2002 American Geophysical Union. Reproduced/modified by permission.Detecting the presence of a fluid and possibly its movement over time (see Figure 12) is differentfrom measuring its flow and the chemical reactions that take place within the fluid, or betweenthe fluid and the rock matrix. Oates (2007) made laboratory measurements of the reactions ofmoving fluids by injecting fluid into a porous medium (Figure 13). Conservative tracers showthe complicated invasion pattern of the flow, whereas reactive tracers create images of reactivityand the diffusion of reactants. The reactivity depends on the chemical properties of the reactants,as well as on the small-scale properties of the flow pattern that brings the reactants into contact.This experiment was carried out in the laboratory where optical techniques can be used fordiagnostics. Measuring reactivity remotely in the subsurface is a much more formidable task.In addition to geophysical methods, chemical and isotopic tracers can be used to characterizesubsurface properties and structures. Environmental tracers (Cook and Herczeg 2000) are either42 Basic Research Needs for Geosciences: Facilitating 21 st Century Energy Systems
PANEL REPORT: SUBSURFACE CHARACTERIZATIONanthropogenic or naturally occurring substances that, with the appropriate model, can provideestimates of the mean residence time of the sampled water. Examples include isotopes (e.g., 14 C,36 Cl, 3 H-He) as well as anthropogenic compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and sulfurhexafluoride (SF 6 ) (Phelps et al. 2006). Recent work (e.g., Weissmann et al. 2002; Bethke andJohnson 2002; DePaolo 2006) indicates that these methods tend to provide a biased estimate ofthe mean age of a typically broad distribution within the groundwater sample (Figure 14). Thebroad distributions of age are indicative of the multiple scales of complexity that cause scaledependentdispersion, preferential flow (including leakage along faults), physical and chemicalanthropogenic transients, and, in some cases, chemical reactions. Unfortunately, environmentaltracer methods are currently insufficient to estimate the full range of groundwater ages within asample and to thereby deduce the actual age distributions. In particular, methods are needed forreliably estimating groundwater ages in the range of 40 to ~3000 years. When methods exist tocover virtually the full range in most ages within groundwater samples (10 0 –10 4 years), it will bepossible to estimate actual age distributions, which will represent a powerful tool forcharacterization of multiscale heterogeneity via model calibration and for validation of thesemodels.Monitoring dynamic subsurface processesMeasuring time-lapse changes (monitoring) is especially critical for understanding processes inthe subsurface. In the seismic image of Figure 10, clear fault zone reflections are visible.Figure 12 shows the reflectivity of the B-fault in map-view as inferred from two seismic surveysrecorded seven years apart. A zone of high reflectivity is moving in the northeast direction,which is the up-dip direction. This moving zone of high reflectivity is indicative of fluidmigration along the fault (Haney et al. 2005). Another example of fluid migration is shown inFigure 15, where CO 2 changes the reflectivity of the seismic image during enhanced oilrecovery. Note that in the examples of Figures 12 and 15 the spatial and temporal scales of thisobserved moving fluid migration are low. Within the limits of this low resolution, the presenceof the fluid pulse can be established, but details of the interaction of the fluid with the subsurfacestructure are lacking.Courtesy of Martin Landro and Statoil.Figure 15. Time-lapse seismic images of a reservoir in which CO 2 is injected. The yellow and red regions indicatelow acoustic impedance; this indicates the presence of fluid or gas.Basic Research Needs for Geosciences: Facilitating 21 st Century Energy Systems 43
Page 6 and 7: TABLE OF CONTENTSBasic Science Chal
Page 9 and 10: TABLE OF CONTENTSTechnology Impacts
Page 13 and 14: EXECUTIVE SUMMARYpurpose of linking
Page 15 and 16: INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONWorldwide e
Page 17 and 18: INTRODUCTIONway into the rock forma
Page 19 and 20: PANEL REPORTSMULTIPHASE FLUID TRANS
Page 21: PANEL REPORT: MULTIPHASE FLUID TRAN
Page 24 and 25: PANEL REPORT: MULTIPHASE FLUID TRAN
Page 38 and 39: PANEL REPORT: CHEMICAL MIGRATION PR
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Page 64 and 65: PANEL REPORT: MODELING AND SIMULATI
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Page 82 and 83: GRAND CHALLENGE: COMPUTATIONAL THER
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GRAND CHALLENGE:INTEGRATED CHARACTE
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GRAND CHALLENGE:INTEGRATED CHARACTE
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GRAND CHALLENGE: SIMULATION OF MULT
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PRIORITY RESEARCH DIRECTION:MINERAL
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PRIORITY RESEARCH DIRECTION:NANOPAR
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PRIORITY RESEARCH DIRECTION:DYNAMIC
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PRIORITY RESEARCH DIRECTION: TRANSP
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PRIORITY RESEARCH DIRECTION:FLUID-I
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PRIORITY RESEARCH DIRECTION:BIOGEOC
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CROSSCUTTING ISSUE:THE MICROSOPIC B
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CROSSCUTTING ISSUE:THE MICROSOPIC B
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CROSSCUTTING ISSUE:HIGHLY REACTIVE
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CROSSCUTTING ISSUE:THERMODYNAMICS O
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CROSSCUTTING ISSUE:THERMODYNAMICS O
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REFERENCESBenner, S.G., Hansel, C.M
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REFERENCESChen, J., Hubbard, S., Pe
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REFERENCESEnnis-King, J., Preston,
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REFERENCESHolman, H.-Y., Perry, D.L
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REFERENCESLi, L., and Tchelepi, H.A
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REFERENCESNeal, A.L., Techkarnjanar
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REFERENCESReeves, P.C., and Celia,
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REFERENCESSteefel, C.I., DePaolo, D
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REFERENCESZachara, J.M., Ainsworth,
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AppendicesBasic Research Needs for
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APPENDIX 1: TECHNICAL PERSPECTIVES
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APPENDIX 2: WORKSHOP PROGRAMThursda
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APPENDIX 4: ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATI
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