GAW Report No. 205 - IGAC Project

CHAPTER 3 - ASIApreliminary stage. Kosasih [2004] presented the total CO 2 emitted from the transportation sector inJakarta, which is around 12 million tons/year while the residential sector contributes around 10million tons/year. So far, there has been no other reported climate forcing agent inventories forJakarta. Several potential Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects have been proposedsuch as CDM for Trans-Jakarta bus way (Bus Rapid Transport) project, clean buses, reducingmethane emission from municipal solid waste disposal site, and fuel shifting in residential sector[Pelangi Foundation, 2007].Recorded research on air pollution in the cityThere have been several research projects on air pollution in Jakarta since early 1990’s.MOE initiated the “blue sky” project focusing on implementation of emission controls of stationaryand mobile sources. In 1993, the Urban Air Quality Management in Jakarta (URBAIR) project wasimplemented to collect benchmark information on air quality in Jakarta [WB, 1997]. The studyincluded monitoring, modelling, and cost benefit and health assessment. It provided the firstrecorded emission inventory of air pollutants for Jakarta and applied a simple dispersion model. Thestudy on the Integrated Air Quality Management for Jakarta Metropolitan Area was carried out in1997 by Japan International Cooperation Agency [JICA, 1997] providing more detailed informationon emission inventories and dispersion modelling of Jakarta and the surrounding area. AsianDevelopment Bank sponsored the RETA Project on the “Study on Air Quality in Jakarta: FutureTrends, Health Impacts, Economic Value, and Policy Options” with a focus on projected healthassessment of air pollution in Jakarta region [ADB, 2002]. A more recent study was conductedunder the project of Asian Regional Research Programme in Energy, Environment, and Climate,Phase III (ARRPEEC III) coordinated by the Asian Institute of Technology and implemented by theInstitut Teknologi Bandung that aimed to develop scenarios of emission reductions of air pollutionand GHG from the transportation sector. A number of different research projects conducted byuniversities and research institutions are also available (see publications cited above).Recent air quality problemsPhotochemical smog has become more serious in Jakarta in recent years [Permadi andOanh, 2008] with frequent exceedances of NAAQS. Higher emission strength of ozone precursors(NO X , VOC) and favourable meteorological conditions are the driving forces to the increased O 3concentrations. Ozone concentrations are expected to remain the same or even get worse sincethere is no reported systematical attempt to formulate mitigation strategies. This may endanger thehuman health and agricultural crops of Jakarta since ozone is toxic and phytotoxic.Particulate matter pollution remains a major air quality issue in Jakarta as well. Effortsshould be put forward to monitor fine particles as well as their composition.The transportation sector is still considered the main contributor of emissions in Jakarta. Thenumber of two-stroke motorcycles in Jakarta is reduced every year but high levels of pollutants arestill observed. The difficulties may be due to high growth rate of vehicle population in Jakarta, whichwas almost 100% from 1995 to 2000. The government has also promoted the Trans-Jakartabusway, unleaded gasoline, and bio-fuel that may improve air quality. New sources such as openbiomass burning in areas surrounding the city have not been addressed adequately. Therefore,more comprehensive air pollution research needs to be carried out in order to provide relevantinformation for decision makers.3.8 MANILA, PHILIPPINESManila demography, topography and climateThe Manila Metropolitan Area, or Metro Manila, is the administrative region encompassingthe city of Manila, the national capital of the Republic of the Philippines. Metro Manila is a megacitymade up of 17 cities and municipalities of the National Capital Region (NCR). A 2007 governmentcensus estimated its population at approximately 12 million over an area of only 636 km 2 . The 2009UN population estimate for the same region was over 20 million and projected to increase to 29.5million by 2025. Manila proper (i.e., excluding surrounding cities and municipalities) has one of the98