GAW Report No. 205 - IGAC Project

CHAPTER 2 - AFRICATerblanche [1996] concluded that, based on calculated HIs, a reduction in particulateconcentrations near 100% would be required to meet with WHO health standards. More recently,Norman et al. (2007a and b) have estimated the burden of diseases attributable to urban areas(including Johannesburg and Vaal triangle area) and to indoor air pollution from solid fuel burningrespectively by using the Comparative risk assessment methodology developed by WHO. PM2.5and PM10 were used as exposure metrics. They showed that outdoor air pollution was estimatedto cause 3.7% of national mortality in 2000 from cardiopulmonary diseases, 5.1% from respiratorytrack cancers in adults aged 30 and older and 1.1% of mortality from ARI in children under 5 yearsold. Regarding indoor pollution, it is estimated 20% of South African households are exposed tosolid fuel burning with marked variations between population groups. Such exposure wasestimated to have caused 0.5% of all deaths in South Africa in 2000.Vaal triangleExposure studies have been conducted in Sebokeng (Vaal triangle) in 1991 by CSIR andthe Medical Research Centre. Forty-five children were monitored between the ages of 8 to 12years old. The study revealed extremely high levels of exposure to total suspended particulates, inexceedance of the US-EPA air quality standard [Terblanche et al., 1992]. Exposures to indoor COconcentrations were found to be up to 180% higher in coal-burning households as compared towood-burning ones within the Vaal Triangle [Terblanche et al., 1995a].More recently, the VAP programme (1990-1993) using six monitoring sites studied thehealth status of adults who had spent their developing years in a polluted area in the Vaal triangleand for whom their respiratory health status was known [Oosthuizen, 2004 Master; Oosthuizen etal., 2008]. Approximate 14,000 children (10 years old) were involved in this programme. Bothoutdoor and indoor measurements with personal monitoring on 30 children (teenagers = 15male/15 female) were performed. The results indicate that the upper prevalence of respiratoryhealth effects is 65% for 10 year olds children compared to 72% for young adults (i.e. 20 yearsold). The risk was the same whether or not the young adults has stayed or left from the Vaaltriangle region. Consequently, exposure to pollution only cannot explain such an increase. Thiscould be due to external risk factors such as pollution perception, allergies, smoking, family history,weight, etc.Johannesburg conurbationAn epidemiological study took place in Soweto lead by the Medical Research Council.The programme, Birth to Ten, focused on neonates to ten years old children (3275 children total).This program now called Birth to twenty is focused on growth and pubertal development in relationto the many risk factors facing young people. Questionnaires on a monthly basis were distributedover a period of one year. Information was obtained on housing factors, fuel usage and healthstatus of children involved. It was reported that 54% of the children in the sub study experienced ahigh frequency of colds and chest illness since birth.To conclude, epidemiological studies show interesting results on domestic coal burningand urban areas source impacts. Such work still needs to be linked to target aerosol species (suchas organic particles, PAH, etc.). Also parallel long-term atmospheric and epidemiological surveyshould be organized to produce dose response functions typical to South Africa. Finally, integratedstudies from processes (biological impacts) to epidemiological studies can provide a betterunderstanding of links between pollution and health.2.4 NORTHERN AFRICA2.4.1 The Greater Cairo Area; City characteristics, geography, population, meteorologyEgypt is located in Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Libya andthe Gaza Strip, and the Red Sea north of Sudan, and includes the Asian Sinai Peninsula. It has apopulation of 73.5 million with approximately 43% of the population living in urban areas [WMO,2008]. In 2009 it was estimated that Egypt’s population increased at a rate of 1.64 % per year andurban population increased at an annual rate of 1.8% (http://world.bymap.org/49