Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology.pdf

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7. How do ecosystem structure and functioning change, when a stream is blocked by the construction of a dam? 8. How does the terrestrial matrix influence carbon and nutrient cycling in lakes and steams? 9. What determines the spiraling length of nutrients in a stream or river? How might human activities influence this spiraling length? Additional Reading Falkowski, P.G., R.T. Barber, and V. Smetacek. 1999. Biogeochemical controls and feedbacks on ocean primary production. Science 281:200– 206. Additional Reading 243 Giller, P.S., and B. Malmqvist. 1998. The Biology of Streams and Rivers. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Moss, B. 1998. Ecology of Fresh Waters: Man and Medium, Past to Future. 3rd ed. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, UK. Schindler, D.W. 1977. Evolution of phosphorus limitation in lakes. Science 195:260–267. Valiela, I. 1995. Marine Ecological Processes. Springer-Verlag, New York. Vannote, R.I., G.W. Minshall, K.W. Cummings, J.R. Sedell, and C.E. Cushing. 1980. The river continuum concept. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 37:120–137. Wagener, S.M., M.W. Oswood, and J.P. Schimel. 1998. Rivers and soils: Parallels in carbon and nutrient processing. BioScience 48:104–108. Wetzel,R.G.2001.Limnology:Lake and River Ecosystems. 3rd ed.Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
11 Trophic Dynamics Introduction Although terrestrial animals consume a relatively small proportion of net primary production (NPP), they strongly affect energy flow and nutrient cycling. In earlier chapters we emphasized the interactions between plants and soil microbes, because these two groups directly account for about 90% of the energy transfers in most terrestrial ecosystems. Plants use solar energy to reduce CO 2 to organic matter, most of which senesces, dies, and directly enters the soil, where it is broken down by bacteria and fungi. Similarly, most nutrient transfers in ecosystems involve uptake by plants and return to the soil as dead organic matter, where nutrients are released and made available by microbial mineralization. In most terrestrial ecosystems the uncertainties in our estimates of primary production and decomposition exceed the total energy transfers from plants to animals. It is perhaps for this reason that terrestrial ecosystem ecologists have frequently ignored animals in classical studies of production and biogeochemical cycles. Aquatic ecologists, however, have been unable to ignore animals because most of the energy and nutrients are transferred from plants to animals rather than directly from plants to dead organic matter (see Chapter 10). Perhaps for this 244 Trophic dynamics govern the movement of carbon, nutrients, and energy among organisms in an ecosystem. This chapter describes the controls over trophic dynamics of ecosystems. reason aquatic ecosystem ecologists have generally led the theoretical developments in this aspect of ecosystem ecology. Understanding the factors governing energy and nutrient transfer to animals has societal implications. Most human populations depend heavily on high-protein foods derived from animals. The exponentially increasing human population requires more food in a world where many people already face an inadequate food supply. An ecologically viable strategy for efficiently providing food to feed the growing human population requires a good understanding of the ecological principles regulating the efficiency with which plants and animals support their growth and maintenance. Overview Energy transfers define the trophic structure of ecosystems. The simplest way to visualize the energetic interactions among organisms in an ecosystem is to trace the fate of a packet of energy from the time it enters the ecosystem until it leaves—without worrying about the identity of the organisms involved (Lindeman 1942). Trophic transfers involve the feeding of one organism on another or on dead organic matter. Plants are called primary producers or
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F. Stuart Chapin III Pamela A. Mats
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Preface Human activities are affect
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Contents Preface . . . . . . . . .
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Contents ix Changes in Storage . .
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Contents xi Root Uptake Properties
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Contents xiii Disturbance . . . . .
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1 The Ecosystem Concept Ecosystem e
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Figure 1.1. Examples of ecosystems
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Community ecology Population ecolog
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ing from biotically driven changes
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The pool sizes and rates of cycling
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and alters patterns of vegetation d
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Figure 1.5. Direct and indirect eff
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many aspects of ecology, hydrology,
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Energy (W m -2 ) 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Ab
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The Atmospheric System Atmospheric
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ecular O2 to form O3. The absorptio
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Hadley cell Hadley cell Ferrell cel
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early sailors as the doldrums. Subs
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phere, extends to depths of 75 to 2
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tures in Great Britain and western
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when the water vapor condenses to f
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Solar flux 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4
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Figure 2.16. Time course of the ave
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Radiative forcing (W m -2 ) Warming
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January September Sun March pattern
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access to light compete effectively
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the top? How does each of these atm
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(Dokuchaev 1879, Jenny 1941, Amunds
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Organic carbon (%) Erosion likely g
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erosion dominating on steep hillslo
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conductivity of soils. Groundwater
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chemical weathering through their c
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Although most of the transfers in s
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leached material from above, it is
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opment, so these soils have weak de
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y roots and bacteria are important
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Table 3.4. Sequence of H + - consum
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new chemical conditions cause them
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72 4. Terrestrial Water and Energy
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98 5. Carbon Input to Terrestrial E
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100 5. Carbon Input to Terrestrial
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124 6. Terrestrial Production Proce
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152 7. Terrestrial Decomposition So
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154 7. Terrestrial Decomposition su
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156 7. Terrestrial Decomposition a
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158 7. Terrestrial Decomposition Ma
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160 7. Terrestrial Decomposition Re
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162 7. Terrestrial Decomposition cy
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164 7. Terrestrial Decomposition Ma
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166 7. Terrestrial Decomposition li
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168 7. Terrestrial Decomposition ar
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170 7. Terrestrial Decomposition R
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172 7. Terrestrial Decomposition LO
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174 7. Terrestrial Decomposition Me
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8 Terrestrial Plant Nutrient Use In
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178 8. Terrestrial Plant Nutrient U
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296 13. Temporal Dynamics Nutrient
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298 13. Temporal Dynamics are aband
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300 13. Temporal Dynamics leaf area
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302 13. Temporal Dynamics account f
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304 13. Temporal Dynamics 6. How do
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306 14. Landscape Heterogeneity and
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15 Global Biogeochemical Cycles The
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tion of surface waters. On daily to
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Crowley 1995). An improved understa
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therefore limits the long-term rate
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important for understanding the rec
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Terrestrial N fixation (Tg yr -1 )
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The addition of limiting nutrients
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has a significant atmospheric compo
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cled. Evaporation and precipitation
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Figure 15.11. Trends in (A) world p
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which cycles are soil pools and flu
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Our use, mismanagement, and uninten
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mycorrhizal or nitrogen-fixing mutu
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Major human impacts on the natural
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promote long-term sustainability of
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Coral reef ecosystems have recently
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Table 16.3. Examples of services pr
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anthropogenic change and to sustain
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Abbreviations an nutrient productiv
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Abbreviations 373 NEE net ecosystem
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Glossary A horizon. Uppermost miner
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Biomass. Quantity of living materia
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Coriolis effect. Tendency, due to E
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Exoenzyme. Enzyme that is secreted
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Inceptisol. Soil order characterize
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Microbial loop. Microbial food web
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Phototroph. Nitrogen-fixing microor
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simply to the greater number of spe
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Sun leaf. Leaf that is acclimated t
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Color Plate I monthly averages of t
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Plate 3. The global pattern of net
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