Teaching With the Brain in Mind

ing pleasure. Amabile (1989) has documented
extensively how the use of rewards damages intrinsic
motivation. While most schools know that even
grades are themselves a form of rewards, only a
select few have moved to a credit/no credit system.
Promoting Intrinsic Motivation
While it’s been fashionable to label students as
“motivated” or “unmotivated,” the reality is much
different. Most students are already intrinsically
motivated; it’s just that the motivation is very context
dependent. The same student who is lethargic
in a traditional math class can become quite energetic
when figuring out paycheck deductions from
her first job. Thus, we can infer that we have been
looking in the wrong places for motivation.
This may lead many educators to ask, “If we
can’t reward positive behaviors, how do we motivate
learners?” Maybe a better question to ask is,
“When students are motivated, what’s going on in
the brain?” Or, “What conditions are present that
foster that precious inner drive?” Researchers tell
us that several factors are present: compelling
goals, positive beliefs, and productive emotions
(Ford 1992). Any discussion about intrinsic motivation
must also include the learner’s natural
search and subsequent construction for meaning.
Meaning will be explored in a later chapter. While
neuroscientists haven’t yet figured out the biological
correlates of goals and beliefs, we do know
much more about the factor of emotions.
The emotions of stress and threat may either
mobilize us or render us passive. On the positive
side, several neurotransmitters are involved in natural,
intrinsic motivation. If it’s mild, cognitive
motivation, we may see increased levels of norepinephrine,
or dopamine. If it’s stronger, more active
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Motivation and Rewards
motivation, it may be increased levels of the peptide
vasopressin or adrenaline. The artificial
manipulation of these chemicals often happens
through medications and food. At school, teachers
can do many things to encourage the release of
those motivating chemicals. Figure 7.2 presents
five key strategies to help students uncover their
intrinsic motivation.
The first strategy is to eliminate threat. It takes
time and a strong intent, but it’s worth it. Some
teachers have asked students to meet in small
groups to brainstorm a list of the things that inhibit
their learning. The groups could then discuss how
some of the problems could be alleviated. Use an
anonymous class survey to ask students what
would make learning more potent and enjoyable.
Second, goal-setting (with some student
choice) on a daily basis can provide a more
focused attitude. Prepare students for a topic with
“teasers” or personal stories to prime their interest.
For example, “Today we’re going to explore your
body’s own highway system for the movement of
nutrients, the circulatory system. The last time you
got sick, this system was part of the solution to
getting better.” This ensures that the content is relevant
to them.
Third, influence positively in every way you
can, symbolically and concretely, students’ beliefs
about themselves and the learning. This includes
the use of affirmations, acknowledging student
successes, positive nonverbals, teamwork, or positive
posters.
Fourth, manage student emotions through the
productive use of rituals, drama, movement, and
celebration. Teach students how to manage their
own emotions, too.
Finally, feedback is one of the greatest sources
of intrinsic motivation. Set up learning that stu-