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palates, patenting a device that allowed patients to speak better. 30 Ida Gray Nelson
Rollins became the first female African American doctor of dentistry, graduating from
the Ohio College of Dentistry in 1890 and practicing in Cincinnati and Chicago. 31
However, most medical schools still refused to admit Black students. As a result,
several Black medical colleges originated, starting with Howard University's medical
department in 1868. Most of these schools were affiliated with missionary organizations
like the American Missionary Association, received little funding, and employed few
staff. 32 By the 1890s, over nine hundred Black physicians held medical degrees and
practiced in the United States, serving a population of 7.5 million African Americans. 33
Graduates of these programs still faced major obstacles in gaining professional
experiences and acceptance. Founded in 1847, the American Medical Association was
the most prestigious organization in the medical profession. Local chapters determined
membership, and almost all refused to admit Black physicians. This resulted in the
denial of post-graduate lectures and trainings. In response, a Black equivalent of the
AMA—the National Medical Association—formed in 1895. Similarly, in 1908 the National
Association of Colored Nurses started. Additionally, most White hospitals refused to hire
Black doctors. Almost all required AMA membership for employment, effectively barring
African Americans. In the late nineteenth century, many Southern states formally
segregated public hospitals, and private hospitals voluntarily followed suit. Hospitals
refused to hire Black physicians and treated Black patients only in separate wings or
different buildings.
30
Chris Ott, "George Franklin Grant," BlackPast.org, 2017,
http://www.Blackpast.org/aah/grant-george-franklin-1847-1910, last accessed July 11,
2019.
31
Phylisha W. Agbor, "Ida Gray Nelson Rollins," BlackPast.org, 2017,
http://www.Blackpast.org/aah/rollins-ida-gray-nelson-1867-1953, last accessed July 11,
2019.
32
Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the Black Medical Schools," in B. Baransky and
N. Gevitz, eds., Beyond Flexner: Medical Education in the 20th Century (NY: Greenwood
Press, 1992), 5-218.
33
Herbert G. Ruffin, "Daniel Hale Williams," BlackPast.org, 2017,
http://www.Blackpast.org/aah/williams-daniel-hale-1856-1931, last accessed July 11,
2019.