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leadership impacts what legislation is considered and passed. Still, however, African
American Members of Congress appear less successful at lawmaking than their White
counterparts. Analyzing data from the 104th Congress, Tate shows that “typically Blacks
sponsored about seven pieces of legislation in 104th Congress, while White Democrats
sponsored about ten and Republicans about thirteen.” 51 Bill sponsorship data from the
103rd Congress shows that African American Democrats were just as successful as
White Democrats in ushering their legislation through Congress. 52 African American
women in Congress have also played a significant role in bill sponsorship, at times
having a more aggressive policy agenda than their male counterparts.
One of the most vocal critics of descriptive representation has been Carol Swain,
who argues that Black descriptive representation is not required for substantive
representation. 53 She further suggests that descriptive representation actually
undermines substantive representation. She suggests that White members of Congress
have represented Black interests better than some Black members. It is important to
note that scholars have asserted that her findings are limited in scope because of her
small sample size. Still, however, African American bill sponsorship holds significant
implications for the value of descriptive representation. This representation literature
contends that African American members of Congress bring distinct policy interests to
the legislative chamber that represent the interests of African Americans. However,
what exactly are “Black interests”? Black interests reflect policies and issues that have
disproportionately impacted African Americans, including legislation concerning "civil
rights, poverty, crime, and unemployment." 54
51
Katherine Tate, Black Faces in the Mirror (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
2004) 79.
52
Tate, Black Faces in the Mirror.
53
Carol M. Swain, Black Face, Black Interests: The Representation of African Americans
in Congress (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 199).
54
Michele Swers and Stella Rouse, “Descriptive Representation: Understanding the
Impact of Identity on Substantive Representation of Group Interests,” in Eric Schickler
and Frances Lee, eds., The Oxford Handbook of the American Congress, (NY: Oxford
University Press, 2011), 246.