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not fi sh (Köhler et al. 2002; Moore 1988; Moore et al. 2006a, b; Viarengo et al. 1985a). LMS in blue mussels
is correlated with oxygen and nitrogen radical scavenging capacity (TOSC), protein synthesis, scope for
growth and larval viability and inversely correlated with DNA damage (incidence of micronuclei), lysosomal
swelling, lipidosis and lipofuscinosis (Dailianis et al. 2003; Kalpaxis et al. 2004; Krishnakumar et al. 1994;
Moore et al. 2004a, b, 2006a; Regoli 2000; Ringwood et al. 2004). In fi sh liver, LMS is strongly correlated
with a suppression of the activity of macrophage aggregates, and lipidosis (Broeg et al. 2005).
A conceptual mechanistic model has been developed linking lysosomal damage and autophagic dysfunction
with injury to cells, tissues and the whole animal; and the complementary use of cell-based bioenergetic
computational model of molluscan hepatopancreatic cells that simulates lysosomal and cellular reactions to
pollutants has also been demonstrated (Allen & McVeigh 2004; Lowe 1988; Moore et al. 2006a, b, c). Various
biomarker indices and decision support systems have been developed based on LMS as “guiding” parameter
to interpret the results of other biomarkers (Figure 3.10) which show “bell-shaped” responses since
it refl ects deleterious effects of various classes of contaminants in an integrative linear manner (Dagnino et
al. 2007, Broeg et al. 2005, Broeg & Lehtonen 2006).
Figure 3.10. Progression of biological effects detected on the basis of LMS in individual fl ounder of the
German Bight (Broeg et al. 2005).
Confounding factors
LMS is an integrative indicator of individual health status and will be affected also by non-contaminant
factors such as severe nutritional deprivation, severe hyperthermia, prolonged hypoxia, and liver infections
associated with high densities of macrophage aggregates (Moore et al. 1980; Moore et al. 2007, Broeg
2010). Processing for neutral red retention (NRR) in samples of molluscs adapted to low salinity environments
should use either physiological saline adjusted to the equivalent ionic strength or else use ambient fi ltered
seawater. The major confounding factor in respect of biomonitoring is the adverse effect of the fi nal stage of
gametogenesis and spawning in mussel, which is a naturally stressful process (Bayne et al. 1978). In general,
this period should be avoided anyway for sampling purposes, as most physiological processes and related
biomarkers are adversely affected (Moore et al. 2004b).
However, for fi sh, spawning has only a minimal effect on LMS and does not mask harmful chemical induced