Il Giornale dei Biologi - N. 3

ECM
i. prevenire le infezioni per contrastare la diffusione della resistenza;
ii. monitorare accuratamente i germi resistenti; iii. migliorare
l’utilizzo delle molecole antibiotiche in ambito umano,
veterinario ed agricolo; e infine iv. promuovere lo sviluppo di
nuove molecole antimicrobiche e di test diagnostici per una rapida
identificazione delle resistenze. È possibile ridurre l’uso
inappropriato di molecole antimicrobiche attraverso programmi
nazionali di contrasto all’AMR, basati su attività di sorveglianza,
strumenti di governo (stewardship), formazione degli
operatori e informazione dei cittadini; e gli attuali programmi
attivati in diversi paesi europei ad oggi stanno ottenendo i primi
incoraggianti risultati [3,29,30].
Bibliografia
1. WHO. Antimicrobial resistance: global report on surveillance
2014.
2. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Antimicrobial
resistance surveillance in Europe 2015. Annual
Report of the European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance
Network (EARS-Net). Stockholm: ECDC; 2017.
3. Piano Nazionale di Contrasto dell’Antimicrobico-Resistenza
(PNCAR) 2017-2020.
4. D’Costa VM, King CE, Kalan L, Morar M, Sung WW,
Schwarz C, Froese D, Zazula G, Calmels F, Debruyne R, Golding
GB, Poinar HN, Wright GD. Antibiotic resistance is ancient.
Nature. 2011 Aug 31; 477(7365): 457-61.
5. Bébéar CM, Pereyre S. Mechanisms of drug resistance in
Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Curr Drug Targets, 2005; 5: 263 271.
6. Reygaert WC. An overview of the antimicrobial resistance
mechanisms of bacteria. AIMS Microbiol. 2018 Jun 26;4(3):482-
501.
7. Aslam B, Wang W, Arshad MI, Khurshid M, Muzammil S,
Rasool MH, Nisar MA, Alvi RF, Aslam MA, Qamar MU, Salamat
MKF, Baloch Z. Antibiotic resistance: a rundown of a global
crisis. Infect Drug Resist. 2018 Oct 10; 11: 1645-1658.
8. Cox G, Wright GD. Intrinsic antibiotic resistance: mechanisms,
origins, challenges and solutions. Int J Med Microbiol
2013; 303: 287-292.
9. Blair JM, Richmond GE, Piddock LJ. Multidrug efflux pumps
in Gram negative bacteria and their role in antibiotic resistance.
Future Microbiol, 2014; 9: 1165-1177.
10. Kumar A, Schweizer HP. Bacterial resistance to antibiotics:
active efflux and reduced uptake. Adv Drug Deliver Rev, 2005;
57: 1486-1513.
11. Cornaglia G, Mazzariol A, Fontana R, Satta G. Diffusion of
carbapenems through the outer membrane of enterobacteriaceae
and correlation of their activities with their periplasmic concentrations.
Microb Drug Resist. 1996 Summer; 2(2): 273-276.
12. Choi U, Lee CR. Distinct Roles of Outer Membrane Porins
in Antibiotic Resistance and Membrane Integrity in Escherichia
coli. Front Microbiol. 2019 Apr 30; 10: 953.
13. Reygaert WC. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA): molecular aspects of antimicrobial resistance and virulence.
Clin Lab Sci, 2009; 22: 115-119.
14. Goudarzi M, Seyedjavadi SS, Nasiri MJ, Goudarzi H, Sajadi
Nia R, Dabiri H. Molecular characteristics of methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains isolated from patients
with bacteremia based on MLST, SCCmec, spa, and agr
locus types analysis. Microb Pathog. 2017 Mar; 104: 328-335.
15. Blair JM, Webber MA, Baylay AJ, Ogbolu DO, Piddock LJ.
Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Nat Rev Microbiol.
2015 Jan; 13(1): 42-51.
16. Ramirez MS, Tolmasky ME. Aminoglycoside modifying enzymes.
Drug Resist Updat. 2010 Dec; 13(6): 151-171.
17. Pfeifer Y, Cullik A, Witte W. Resistance to cephalosporins
and carbapenems in Gram-negative bacterial pathogens. Int J
Med Microbiol, 2010; 300: 371–379.
18. Bush K, Bradford PA. β-Lactams and β-lactamase inhibitors:
an overview. CSH Perspect Med, 2016 6: a02527.
19. Schultsz C, Geerlings S. Plasmid mediated resistance in Enterobacteriaceae.
Drugs. 2012; 72: 1-16.
20. Chancey ST, Zähner D, Stephens DS. Acquired inducible
antimicrobial resistance in Gram positive bacteria. Future Microbiol.
2012; 7: 959-978.
21. Mahon CR, Lehman DC, Manuselis G. Antimicrobial agent
mechanisms of action and resistance, 2014; In: Textbook of Diagnostic
Microbiology, St. Louis: Saunders, 254-273.
22. Blair JM, Richmond GE, Piddock LJ. Multidrug efflux pumps
in Gram negative bacteria and their role in antibiotic resistance.
Future Microbiol. 2014; 9: 1165-1177.
23. Poole K. Efflux pumps as antimicrobial resistance mechanisms.
Ann Med. 2007; 39: 162-176.
24. Wood TK, Knabel SJ, Kwan BW. Bacterial persister cell
formation and dormancy. Appl Environ Microbiol 2013; 79:
7116–7121.
25. Keren I, Kaldalu N, Spoering A, Wang Y, Lewis K. Persister
cells and tolerance to antimicrobials. FEMS Microbiol Lett
2004; 230: 13–18.
26. Ferrazzano GF, Scioscia E, Sateriale D, Pastore G, Colicchio
R, Pagliuca C, Cantile T, Alcidi B, Coda M, Ingenito A,
Scaglione E, Cicatiello AG, Volpe MG, Di Stasio M, Salvatore
P, Pagliarulo C. In Vitro Antibacterial Activity of Pomegranate
Juice and Peel Extracts on Cariogenic Bacteria. Biomed Res Int.
2017; 2017: 2152749.
27. Pagliarulo C, De Vito V, Picariello L, Colicchio R, Pastore
G, Salvatore P, Volpe MG. Inhibitory effect of pomegranate
(Punica granatum L.) polyphenol extracts on the bacterial
growth and survival of clinical isolates of pathogenic Staphylococcus
aureus and Escherichia coli. Food Chemistry 2016 Jan
1; 190: 824-831.
28. Sateriale D, Scioscia E, Colicchio R, Pagliuca C, Salvatore P,
Varricchio E, Grazia Volpe M, Paolucci M, Pagliarulo C. Italian
acacia honey exhibits lytic effects against the crayfish pathogens
Aphanomyces astaci and Fusarium avenaceum. Lett Appl Microbiol.
2019 Jan; 68(1): 64-72
29. Monnet D, Kristinsson K. Turning the tide of antimicrobial
resistance: Europe shows the way. Euro Surveill 2008;13, pii.
19039.
30. ECDC Surveillance Report. Point prevalence survey of health
care associated infections and antimicrobial use in European
acute care hospitals 2011-2012. www.ecdc.europa.eu.
Il Giornale dei Biologi | Marzo 2020
83