A History of English Literature
A History of English Literature
A History of English Literature
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Lollardism, which had nearly been crushed out, and in spite <strong>of</strong> a minority<br />
devoted to the older system, the nation as a whole began to move rapidly<br />
toward change. Advocates <strong>of</strong> radical revolution thrust themselves forward in<br />
large numbers, while cultured and thoughtful men, including the Oxford<br />
group, indulged the too ideal hope <strong>of</strong> a gradual and peaceful reform.<br />
The actual course <strong>of</strong> the religious movement was determined largely by the<br />
personal and political projects <strong>of</strong> Henry VIII. Conservative at the outset,<br />
Henry even attacked Luther in a pamphlet, which won from the Pope for<br />
himself and his successors the title 'Defender <strong>of</strong> the Faith.' But when the<br />
Pope finally refused Henry's demand for the divorce from Katharine <strong>of</strong><br />
Spain, which would make possible a marriage with Anne Boleyn, Henry angrily<br />
threw <strong>of</strong>f the papal authority and declared himself the Supreme Head <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Church in England, thus establishing the separate <strong>English</strong> (Anglican,<br />
Episcopal) church. In the brief reign <strong>of</strong> Henry's son, Edward VI, the<br />
separation was made more decisive; under Edward's sister, Mary, Catholicism<br />
was restored; but the last <strong>of</strong> Henry's children, Elizabeth, coming to the<br />
throne in 1558, gave the final victory to the <strong>English</strong> communion. Under all<br />
these sovereigns (to complete our summary <strong>of</strong> the movement) the more radical<br />
Protestants, Puritans as they came to be called, were active in agitation,<br />
undeterred by frequent cruel persecution and largely influenced by the<br />
corresponding sects in Germany and by the Presbyterianism established by<br />
Calvin in Geneva and later by John Knox in Scotland. Elizabeth's skilful<br />
management long kept the majority <strong>of</strong> the Puritans within the <strong>English</strong><br />
Church, where they formed an important element, working for simpler<br />
practices and introducing them in congregations which they controlled. But<br />
toward the end <strong>of</strong> the century and <strong>of</strong> Elizabeth's reign, feeling grew<br />
tenser, and groups <strong>of</strong> the Puritans, sometimes under persecution, definitely<br />
separated themselves from the State Church and established various<br />
sectarian bodies. Shortly after 1600, in particular, the Independents, or<br />
Congregationalists, founded in Holland the church which was soon to<br />
colonize New England. At home, under James I, the breach widened, until the<br />
nation was divided into two hostile camps, with results most radically<br />
decisive for literature. But for the present we must return to the early<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the sixteenth century.<br />
SIR THOMAS MORE AND HIS 'UTOPIA.' Out <strong>of</strong> the confused and bitter strife <strong>of</strong><br />
churches and parties, while the outcome was still uncertain, issued a great<br />
mass <strong>of</strong> controversial writing which does not belong to literature. A few<br />
works, however, more or less directly connected with the religious<br />
agitation, cannot be passed by.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the most attractive and finest spirits <strong>of</strong> the reign <strong>of</strong> Henry VIII<br />
was Sir Thomas More. A member <strong>of</strong> the Oxford group in its second generation,<br />
a close friend <strong>of</strong> Erasmus, his house a center <strong>of</strong> humanism, he became even<br />
more conspicuous in public life. A highly successful lawyer, he was rapidly<br />
advanced by Henry VIII in court and in national affairs, until on the fall<br />
<strong>of</strong> Cardinal Wolsey in 1529 he was appointed, much against his will, to the<br />
highest <strong>of</strong>fice open to a subject, that <strong>of</strong> Lord Chancellor (head <strong>of</strong> the<br />
judicial system). A devoted Catholic, he took a part which must have been<br />
revolting to himself in the torturing and burning <strong>of</strong> Protestants; but his<br />
absolute loyalty to conscience showed itself to better purpose when in the<br />
almost inevitable reverse <strong>of</strong> fortune he chose harsh imprisonment and death<br />
rather than to take the formal oath <strong>of</strong> allegiance to the king in opposition<br />
to the Pope. His quiet jests on the scaffold suggest the never-failing<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> humor which was one sign <strong>of</strong> the completeness and perfect poise <strong>of</strong><br />
his character; while the hair-shirt which he wore throughout his life and<br />
the severe penances to which he subjected himself reveal strikingly how the<br />
expression <strong>of</strong> the deepest convictions <strong>of</strong> the best natures may be determined