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However these strategy studies are subject to political decisions and economic realities which cannot be forecast over the several decades or centuries necessary to achieve a steady state between input and output of fissile and fertile nuclear materials. Fuel and target fabrication issues The report treats in a factual way the problems encountered when introducing minor actinides into the nuclear fuel cycle. Fabrication of mixed oxide fuel with low (
eactor concepts are still in the conceptual phase and the calculated yields have yet to be verified in representative conditions. Minor actinide transmutation in fast reactor cores (liquid metal fast breeder reactors, advanced liquid metal reactors) has no serious drawback in terms of core performance, provided that the ratio of minor actinides to fuel remains small. The design of fast burner reactors and minor actinide burner reactors (MABRs) needs further research and development because the effects on reactivity coefficients and kinetic parameters cast some doubt on their feasibility with high minor actinide loadings. Recently hybrid type accelerator-driven sub-critical transmutation systems have been receiving increased attention world-wide as an alternative to conventional nuclear reactors. Accelerators, whether linear accelerators or cyclotrons, produce a proton flux which impinges on a heavy metal target which undergoes spallation. The spallation neutrons impinge in their turn on fissile and fertile nuclear materials, e.g. minor actinides, which undergo fission and capture. The transmutation of minor actinides cannot be dissociated from the transmutation of plutonium, and any strategy in this connection has to take into account the depletion of minor actinides in targets or fuels and the simultaneous generation of minor actinides from plutonium. Transmutation of long-lived fission products Transmutation of long-lived fission products ( 99 Tc, 129 I) to short-lived or inactive nuclides has been investigated and led to the conclusion that it is theoretically possible but that higher fuel enrichments are necessary in light water reactors. The transmutation half-life varies from 15-18 years in fast reactors to 40-77 years in light water reactors. Irradiation of selected fission products in accelerator-driven systems or optimised fast reactors would make it possible to decrease the transmutation half-life. Intensive development of target and fuel assembly materials would be required (as in the case of Iodine), as well as refined isotopic separation in the case of some elements (e.g. Se , Zr, Cs, Sn, … ). Current trends in partitioning and transmutation research Taking into account the progress of the research and development programmes in Japan and in France, a special section and Annexes B and C deal with the current partitioning and transmutation activities in these countries. These programmes, in which many countries participate directly or indirectly, are undoubtedly the most important in the world. Impact of partitioning and transmutation on risk assessment and waste management activities In order to set out very clearly the impact of partitioning and transmutation on long-term radiotoxicity, a special section in the report is devoted to the significance and definition of radiotoxic inventory. The radiotoxic inventory depends on the physical inventory of radionuclides in the various fuel cycles and on the effective dose coefficients of individual radionuclides. Graphs show the natural 6
Page 1 and 2: TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Page 3 and 4: TABLE DES MATIÈRES NOTE DE SYNTHÈ
Page 5 and 6: PART II. TECHNICAL ANALYSIS AND SYS
Page 7 and 8: 4. IMPACT OF P&T ON RISK ASSESSMENT
Page 9 and 10: Figure II.31 Evolution of the expec
Page 11 and 12: Part II: Technical analysis and sys
Page 13: There are several scenarios which c
Page 17 and 18: intermediate storage management, th
Page 20 and 21: 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Involvement of
Page 22: and natural decay play an important
Page 25 and 26: Figure I.2 A schematic diagram of b
Page 27 and 28: Instead of recycling, one could ado
Page 29 and 30: to address there is the separation
Page 31 and 32: improvement of the biological shiel
Page 33 and 34: Figure I.3 A schematic diagram of t
Page 35 and 36: Figure1.5 A notional materials flow
Page 37 and 38: A few specific regulatory and safet
Page 39 and 40: • irradiation of FR-fuel in Fast
Page 41 and 42: dispersion in the geosphere or bios
Page 43 and 44: In the meantime the burn-up of spen
Page 45 and 46: Any reprocessing campaign of spent
Page 48 and 49: 4. CRITICAL EVALUATION • P&T may
Page 50: 5. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS • Fundamen
Page 54 and 55: NOTE DE SYNTHÈSE ET PORTÉE DU RAP
Page 56 and 57: Présentation générale Cette part
Page 58 and 59: courts. L’application de cette te
Page 60 and 61: éalisable, à condition d’augmen
Page 62: PREMIÈRE PARTIE : PRÉSENTATION G
Page 65 and 66:
La troisième réunion internationa
Page 67 and 68:
1.5 Objectifs du rapport Dans l’e
Page 69 and 70:
Figure I.1 Schéma de principe du c
Page 71 and 72:
• l ’241 Am est le précurseur
Page 73 and 74:
plutonium et environ 2 m 3 de déch
Page 75 and 76:
2.3 Technologie de fabrication des
Page 77:
cadre de la coopération EFTTRA ont
Page 80 and 81:
On peut voir sur la Figure I.4 les
Page 82 and 83:
Figure I.4 Flux de matières dans u
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À court terme, les produits de fis
Page 86 and 87:
Par conséquent, au cas où l’on
Page 88 and 89:
De nombreux laboratoires dans le mo
Page 90 and 91:
usé devrait représenter environ 3
Page 92 and 93:
le nucléide le plus gênant est le
Page 94 and 95:
transuraniens. Pour obtenir un taux
Page 96 and 97:
On peut considérer des opérations
Page 98 and 99:
devrait en principe ouvrir de nouve
Page 101:
5. CONCLUSIONS GÉNÉRALES • La m
Page 105:
PART II: TECHNICAL ANALYSIS AND SYS
Page 108 and 109:
1.1.1.1 Minor actinides Americium a
Page 110 and 111:
thus preventing its dispersion in t
Page 112 and 113:
By contrast, information about the
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DIDPA [5] (see Figure II.3) process
Page 116 and 117:
The generation of secondary effluen
Page 118 and 119:
Figure II.5 TRPO process TRPO solve
Page 120 and 121:
According to Jarvinen et al. in LAN
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curium. • Separation of americium
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1.1.4.4 Separation of technetium an
Page 126 and 127:
The second option is production of
Page 128 and 129:
Figure II.9 Fuel cycle actinide bur
Page 130 and 131:
Figure II.11 Flow sheet of pyro-rep
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The metathetical reaction between L
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This is confirmed by the radiotoxic
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For the same burn-up as in the pure
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planned for a burn-up range of 1.5
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On the basis of the study, it is no
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In a given reactor system, the diff
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- deterioration of the effectivenes
Page 146 and 147:
Table II.5 Mass balances for homoge
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manufacture is 2 years. 12×24 targ
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Figure II.14 MA-loading methods in
Page 152 and 153:
Table II.7 Mass balances for homoge
Page 154 and 155:
Table II.8 Mass balances for hetero
Page 156 and 157:
Core characteristics above: The fol
Page 158 and 159:
Figure II.15 Concept of double stra
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Figure II.16 Concept of accelerator
Page 162 and 163:
In Reference [99], the sodium coole
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In Germany, some small activities r
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OECD/NEA programmes The OECD/NEA Nu
Page 168 and 169:
As a part of MA nuclear data evalua
Page 170 and 171:
Table II.13 Pu and minor actinide b
Page 172 and 173:
2.4.1.3 Transmutation in light wate
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3. DESCRIPTION OF CURRENT TRENDS IN
Page 176 and 177:
The SPIN programme studied various
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• the RP1-2 scenario is compared
Page 180 and 181:
Mass balance The MA mass balance, f
Page 182 and 183:
4. IMPACT OF P&T ON RISK ASSESSMENT
Page 184 and 185:
For deterministic effects, in the c
Page 186 and 187:
• accounting for a number of safe
Page 188 and 189:
Table II.17 Effective dose coeffici
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MOX fuel and recycling of recovered
Page 192 and 193:
Figure II.22 Potential radioactivit
Page 194 and 195:
Moreover, plutonium recycling and m
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Curium is assumed to be stored for
Page 198 and 199:
Figure II.25 shows the radiotoxicit
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decrease is obtained in the radioto
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4.4 Risk and hazard assessment over
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4.4.2 Radiological impact of waste
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0.191 man-Sv/TWhe and the RFC with
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• conventional reprocessing does
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The maximum inventory of reactor co
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pursued. Since 137 Cs and 90 Sr are
Page 214 and 215:
Figure II.26 Surface facilities. Ge
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Doses are controlled by 36 Cl up to
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Figure II.30 Overview of the canist
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surface. The reference repository i
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Figure II.34 Cavern-convection scen
Page 224 and 225:
Figure II.36 Normal evolution scena
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considerable energy release as a re
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• taking into account the potenti
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• on the subject of transmutation
Page 232 and 233:
[12] Arnaud-Neu, F., et al., “Cal
Page 234 and 235:
Fuel”, Proc. Int. Conf. on Future
Page 236 and 237:
[64] Arai, T., Suzuki, Y., Handa, M
Page 238 and 239:
[88] Murata, H., and Mukaiyama, T.,
Page 240 and 241:
[117] Gudowski, W., “Accelerator-
Page 242 and 243:
[146] D’angelo, A., Marimbeau, P.
Page 244 and 245:
[172] OECD/NEA and IAEA, Uranium: R
Page 246:
[202] Schmidt, E., Zamorani, E., Ha
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