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evolution of radiotoxic inventories corresponding to the once-through cycle, reprocessing fuel cycle and advanced fuel cycle. The role of partitioning and transmutation in waste management depends primarily on the minor actinide inventories to be handled in the advanced fuel cycle facilities. The section discusses the reactor strategy to be implemented in order to achieve a significant reduction of the radiotoxic inventory. Three representative cases are considered with various combinations of light water reactors loaded with uranium dioxide and mixed oxide fuel, and fast reactors loaded with mixed oxide fuel. A substantial proportion of fast reactors is necessary. In each of the cases examined, the radiotoxic inventory in the waste streams is reduced by a factor of about 100. However, the decrease observed in the waste discharges is accompanied by a steady increase of the radiotoxic inventory of the reactor and fuel cycle facilities operated over a long period of time to accomplish this waste minimisation. Where all minor actinides are recycled including the curium fraction, the radiotoxic inventory reduction factor, compared with once through cycle, ranges from 77 to 100 after 10 000 years, and in the very long term (10 5 and 10 6 years) from 80 to 150. If the curium fraction is not recycled, the radiotoxic inventory is reduced only by a factor of 7 to 14 at 10 000 years owing to the decay of 244 Cm into 240 Pu and 243 Cm into 239 Pu. When making a global mass balance of the minor actinides involved in a long-term multiple recycling programme, the radiotoxic inventory of the nuclear materials in the reactors and fuel cycle facilities becomes overwhelmingly more important than the annual waste discharges. Various cases leave equilibrium inventories of several hundred tonnes of transuranic elements. Based on data from different economic assessments, but principally relying on a comprehensive study carried out within the European Union’s R&D programme on radioactive waste management and disposal, some very preliminary cost data for the advanced fuel cycle with partitioning and transmutation strategy are given in Annex F. Waste management concepts Estimates of the radiological benefit to be expected from partitioning and transmutation must take into account the mobilities of the elements in the geosphere, which may substantially modify the simple picture presented by the reduction in radiotoxic inventory alone. Other benefits, e.g. with respect to intrusion, may however be derived from the possibility of especially secure conditioning and emplacement of the long-lived radionuclides. In order to fit the partitioning and transmutation option into the context of existing waste management strategies, the direct disposal concepts in granite formations of Spain and Sweden are briefly described as examples. A section discusses the issue of criticality safety in the disposal of spent fuel. In the case of the reprocessing fuel cycle, the impact of the disposal of high- and medium-level waste as scheduled to be realised in Germany, Switzerland and Belgium, respectively in salt, granite and in clay, are given as illustrations. A number of options are being studied on disposal of waste forms resulting from the advanced fuel cycle incorporating partitioning and transmutation. Nevertheless, the report sheds some light on the technical and operational aspects of such a strategy; in particular, 7
intermediate storage management, the fate of irradiated targets and the residual reactor cores from a prolonged nuclear energy production. In addition to the highly radioactive materials resulting from an advanced fuel cycle, attention should be drawn on the large inventories of depleted uranium produced during the enrichment processes. The depleted uranium stocks can in a short time interval be considered as a strategic material to be reused in case the FRs would become an important fraction of the total electricity generating capacity. If the FRs do not emerge as nuclear electricity producers, depleted uranium will be considered as a waste material whose radiotoxicity will eventually become equal to that of natural uranium ore. 8
Page 1 and 2: TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Page 3 and 4: TABLE DES MATIÈRES NOTE DE SYNTHÈ
Page 5 and 6: PART II. TECHNICAL ANALYSIS AND SYS
Page 7 and 8: 4. IMPACT OF P&T ON RISK ASSESSMENT
Page 9 and 10: Figure II.31 Evolution of the expec
Page 11 and 12: Part II: Technical analysis and sys
Page 13 and 14: There are several scenarios which c
Page 15: eactor concepts are still in the co
Page 20 and 21: 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Involvement of
Page 22: and natural decay play an important
Page 25 and 26: Figure I.2 A schematic diagram of b
Page 27 and 28: Instead of recycling, one could ado
Page 29 and 30: to address there is the separation
Page 31 and 32: improvement of the biological shiel
Page 33 and 34: Figure I.3 A schematic diagram of t
Page 35 and 36: Figure1.5 A notional materials flow
Page 37 and 38: A few specific regulatory and safet
Page 39 and 40: • irradiation of FR-fuel in Fast
Page 41 and 42: dispersion in the geosphere or bios
Page 43 and 44: In the meantime the burn-up of spen
Page 45 and 46: Any reprocessing campaign of spent
Page 48 and 49: 4. CRITICAL EVALUATION • P&T may
Page 50: 5. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS • Fundamen
Page 54 and 55: NOTE DE SYNTHÈSE ET PORTÉE DU RAP
Page 56 and 57: Présentation générale Cette part
Page 58 and 59: courts. L’application de cette te
Page 60 and 61: éalisable, à condition d’augmen
Page 62: PREMIÈRE PARTIE : PRÉSENTATION G
Page 65 and 66: La troisième réunion internationa
Page 67 and 68:
1.5 Objectifs du rapport Dans l’e
Page 69 and 70:
Figure I.1 Schéma de principe du c
Page 71 and 72:
• l ’241 Am est le précurseur
Page 73 and 74:
plutonium et environ 2 m 3 de déch
Page 75 and 76:
2.3 Technologie de fabrication des
Page 77:
cadre de la coopération EFTTRA ont
Page 80 and 81:
On peut voir sur la Figure I.4 les
Page 82 and 83:
Figure I.4 Flux de matières dans u
Page 84 and 85:
À court terme, les produits de fis
Page 86 and 87:
Par conséquent, au cas où l’on
Page 88 and 89:
De nombreux laboratoires dans le mo
Page 90 and 91:
usé devrait représenter environ 3
Page 92 and 93:
le nucléide le plus gênant est le
Page 94 and 95:
transuraniens. Pour obtenir un taux
Page 96 and 97:
On peut considérer des opérations
Page 98 and 99:
devrait en principe ouvrir de nouve
Page 101:
5. CONCLUSIONS GÉNÉRALES • La m
Page 105:
PART II: TECHNICAL ANALYSIS AND SYS
Page 108 and 109:
1.1.1.1 Minor actinides Americium a
Page 110 and 111:
thus preventing its dispersion in t
Page 112 and 113:
By contrast, information about the
Page 114 and 115:
DIDPA [5] (see Figure II.3) process
Page 116 and 117:
The generation of secondary effluen
Page 118 and 119:
Figure II.5 TRPO process TRPO solve
Page 120 and 121:
According to Jarvinen et al. in LAN
Page 122 and 123:
curium. • Separation of americium
Page 124 and 125:
1.1.4.4 Separation of technetium an
Page 126 and 127:
The second option is production of
Page 128 and 129:
Figure II.9 Fuel cycle actinide bur
Page 130 and 131:
Figure II.11 Flow sheet of pyro-rep
Page 132 and 133:
The metathetical reaction between L
Page 134 and 135:
This is confirmed by the radiotoxic
Page 136 and 137:
For the same burn-up as in the pure
Page 138 and 139:
planned for a burn-up range of 1.5
Page 140 and 141:
On the basis of the study, it is no
Page 142 and 143:
In a given reactor system, the diff
Page 144 and 145:
- deterioration of the effectivenes
Page 146 and 147:
Table II.5 Mass balances for homoge
Page 148 and 149:
manufacture is 2 years. 12×24 targ
Page 150 and 151:
Figure II.14 MA-loading methods in
Page 152 and 153:
Table II.7 Mass balances for homoge
Page 154 and 155:
Table II.8 Mass balances for hetero
Page 156 and 157:
Core characteristics above: The fol
Page 158 and 159:
Figure II.15 Concept of double stra
Page 160 and 161:
Figure II.16 Concept of accelerator
Page 162 and 163:
In Reference [99], the sodium coole
Page 164 and 165:
In Germany, some small activities r
Page 166 and 167:
OECD/NEA programmes The OECD/NEA Nu
Page 168 and 169:
As a part of MA nuclear data evalua
Page 170 and 171:
Table II.13 Pu and minor actinide b
Page 172 and 173:
2.4.1.3 Transmutation in light wate
Page 174 and 175:
3. DESCRIPTION OF CURRENT TRENDS IN
Page 176 and 177:
The SPIN programme studied various
Page 178 and 179:
• the RP1-2 scenario is compared
Page 180 and 181:
Mass balance The MA mass balance, f
Page 182 and 183:
4. IMPACT OF P&T ON RISK ASSESSMENT
Page 184 and 185:
For deterministic effects, in the c
Page 186 and 187:
• accounting for a number of safe
Page 188 and 189:
Table II.17 Effective dose coeffici
Page 190 and 191:
MOX fuel and recycling of recovered
Page 192 and 193:
Figure II.22 Potential radioactivit
Page 194 and 195:
Moreover, plutonium recycling and m
Page 196 and 197:
Curium is assumed to be stored for
Page 198 and 199:
Figure II.25 shows the radiotoxicit
Page 200 and 201:
decrease is obtained in the radioto
Page 202 and 203:
4.4 Risk and hazard assessment over
Page 204 and 205:
4.4.2 Radiological impact of waste
Page 206 and 207:
0.191 man-Sv/TWhe and the RFC with
Page 208 and 209:
• conventional reprocessing does
Page 210 and 211:
The maximum inventory of reactor co
Page 212 and 213:
pursued. Since 137 Cs and 90 Sr are
Page 214 and 215:
Figure II.26 Surface facilities. Ge
Page 216 and 217:
Doses are controlled by 36 Cl up to
Page 218 and 219:
Figure II.30 Overview of the canist
Page 220 and 221:
surface. The reference repository i
Page 222 and 223:
Figure II.34 Cavern-convection scen
Page 224 and 225:
Figure II.36 Normal evolution scena
Page 226 and 227:
considerable energy release as a re
Page 228 and 229:
• taking into account the potenti
Page 230 and 231:
• on the subject of transmutation
Page 232 and 233:
[12] Arnaud-Neu, F., et al., “Cal
Page 234 and 235:
Fuel”, Proc. Int. Conf. on Future
Page 236 and 237:
[64] Arai, T., Suzuki, Y., Handa, M
Page 238 and 239:
[88] Murata, H., and Mukaiyama, T.,
Page 240 and 241:
[117] Gudowski, W., “Accelerator-
Page 242 and 243:
[146] D’angelo, A., Marimbeau, P.
Page 244 and 245:
[172] OECD/NEA and IAEA, Uranium: R
Page 246:
[202] Schmidt, E., Zamorani, E., Ha
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