CitationS and noteS Atherton R. (Coordinator), “Water cooled breeder program summary report (Light Water Breeder Reactor development program),” WAPD-TM-1600, Bettis Atomic Power Lab, (1987). Belle J. and Berman R.M., Ed., Thorium Dioxide: Properties and Nuclear Applications, US DOE/NE-0060, (1984). Galperin A., Segev M., Todosow M., “Pressurized water reactor plutonium incinerator based on thorium fuel and seedblanket assembly geometry”, Nuclear Technology, 132, 214-226, (2000). Galperin A., Shwageraus E., Todosow M., “Assessment of Homogeneous Thorium/Uranium <strong>Fuel</strong> for Pressurized Water Reactors”, Nuclear Technology, 138, 111-122, (2002). Galperin, A., Reichert, P., Radkowsky, A., “Thorium <strong>Fuel</strong> for Light Water Reactors-Reducing Proliferation Potential of Nuclear Power <strong>Fuel</strong> Cycle,” Science & Global Security, 6, 3, 265-290 (1997). Gruppelaar H., Schapira J.P. (Editors), Thorium as a Waste Management Option, Final Report EUR 19142EN, European Commission, (2000). International Atomic <strong>Energy</strong> Agency, “Potential of Thorium-based <strong>Fuel</strong> Cycles to Constrain Plutonium and to Reduce the Long-lived Waste Toxicity,” IAEA-TECDOC-1349, (2003). International Atomic <strong>Energy</strong> Agency, “Thorium <strong>Fuel</strong> Cycle – Potential Benefits and Challenges,” IAEA-TECDOC-1450, Vienna (2005). M. S. Kazimi, “Thorium <strong>Fuel</strong> for Nuclear <strong>Energy</strong>” American Scientist (2003). Kim T.K., and Downar T., “Thorium <strong>Fuel</strong> Performance in a Tight-Pitch Light Water Reactor Lattice”, Nuclear Technology. 138, 17-29, (2002). Lidsky, L.M., “Fission-fusion systems - Hybrid, symbiotic and Augean,” Nuclear Fusion, 15, 151-173, (1975). Lung M., “A Present Review of the Thorium Nuclear <strong>Fuel</strong> Cycles”, European Commission, Nuclear Science and Technology Series, EUR 17771, (1997). Rubbia C., Rubio J. A., Buono S., Carminati F., Fiétier N., Galvez J., Gelés C., Kadi Y., Klapisch R., Mandrillon P., Revol J. P., and Roche Ch., “Conceptual Design of a fast Neutron Operated High Power <strong>Energy</strong> Amplifier,” CERN-AT-95-44(ET), Geneva, (1995). Shwageraus E., Hejzlar P., Kazimi M. S., “Use of Thorium for Transmutation of Plutonium and Minor Actinides in PWRs”, Nuclear Technology, 147, 53-68, 2004. Shwageraus E., Zhao X., Driscoll M. J., Hejzlar P, Kazimi M. S., Herring J. S., “Micro-heterogeneous Thoria-Urania <strong>Fuel</strong>s for Pressurized Water Reactors”, Nuclear Technology, 147, 20-36, (2005). Todosow M., Galperin A., Herring S., Kazimi M., Downar T., Morozov A., “Use of Thorium in Light Water Reactors”, Nuclear Technology, 151, 168-176, (2005). Wang D., Kazimi M.S., and Driscoll M.J., Optimization of a Heterogeneous Thorium-Uranium Core Design for Pressurized Water Reactors, <strong>MIT</strong>-NFC-TR-057, (July 2003). appendix a: Thorium <strong>Fuel</strong> <strong>cycle</strong> options 189
190 <strong>MIT</strong> STudy on <strong>The</strong> <strong>FuTure</strong> <strong>oF</strong> <strong>nuclear</strong> <strong>Fuel</strong> <strong>cycle</strong>
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Other Reports in This Series The Fu
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MIT Nuclear Fuel Cycle Study Adviso
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viii MIT STudy on The FuTure oF nuc
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Study Findings and Recommendations
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Recommendation We recommend that a
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p Innovative nuclear energy applica
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p In line with many of our R&D reco
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The “once through” or open fuel
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have been implemented slowly. This
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Recommendation We recommend that th
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oped policies for specific wastes r
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nuClear Fuel CyCleS The united Stat
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- The primary differences were in t
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Recommendation Integrated system st
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Table 1.2 Summary of R&D Recommenda
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18 MIT STudy on The FuTure oF nucle
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the once-through Fuel Cycle for lig
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tricity costs. Waste management cos
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Figure 2.3 partial recycle of lWr S
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history of the nuclear Fuel Cycle B
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• What is the impact of timing of
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nuclear fuel cycles, the wastes (SN
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Because ore demand is closely coupl
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eStimatinG Future CoStS oF uranium
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Figure 3.3 relative uranium Cost vs
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Figure 3.4 100 year price trend for
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Stockpiling If supply interruption
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CitationS and noteS 1. Uranium 2007
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If SNF is to be shipped, typically
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a policy that maintains fuel cycle
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Dry cask storage is used for short
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For decommissioned sites, our econo
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with its attractiveness of jobs and
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54 MIT STudy on The FuTure oF nucle
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2. The United States should create
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Table 5.1 United States Waste Class
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table 5.3 examples of operational G
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Waste Isolation Pilot Plant The uni
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Successful repository programs are
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designed with limited SNF storage c
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CitationS and noteS 1. A Handbook f
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70 MIT STudy on The FuTure oF nucle
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energy spectrum centered at higher
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light Water reactor Fuel technical
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(fertile-free) to CR=1.0 (break-eve
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license. However, fuel reprocessing
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Figure 6.4 densification Factors as
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As expected, the breeder installed
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Figure 6.8 shows the development of
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Table 6.8 Uranium Cost in $/kg, Sta
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Figure 6.11 location of the tru inv
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SenSitivity analySiS: alternative a
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Fast reactor technical Characterist
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cooled fast reactor (SFR) fueled by
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Summary oF ConCluSionS Among the in
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[hoffman et al., 2006] e.a. hoffman
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This chapter reports the cost of th
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Table 7.1 Input Parameter Assumptio
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Twice-Through Cycle Table 7.3 shows
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Table 7.4 The LCOE for the Fast Rea
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higher cost of disposal of the spen
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110 MIT STudy on The FuTure oF nucl
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power program might be used, as is
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Figure 8.1 Weapons-usability Charac
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inStitutional approaCheS to Fuel Cy
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the iaea additional protocol an Iae
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in technology innovation are likely
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Reprocessing choices Commercial rep
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Table 8.2 Safeguard Technical Objec
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port for nuclear power over the per
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Those Americans who have an opinion
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who are very concerned with global
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p Waste management must be integrat
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options because we do not know toda
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