The FuTure oF nuclear Fuel cycle - MIT Energy Initiative

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Table E.4 Recycling Fuel Fabrication Technologies Fuel CompoSition Fuel FabriCation teChnoloGy Fuel paCKinG ShieldinG needS u/Pu-MoX lWr u/Pu-MoX Fr Mill and mix u and Pu oxides. cold press and sinter Mill and mix u and Pu oxides. cold press and sinter Pellets stacked in cladding Pellets stacked in cladding Shielded glovebox with controlled atmosphere Shielded glovebox with controlled atmosphere u/Pu-Metal Fr dip cast from molten-metal bath Metal rod in cladding na-bonded Shielded glovebox with controlled atmosphere u/Pu/np-oX lWr u/Pu/np-oX Fr u/Tru-oX Fr Mill and mix oxides. cold press and sinter Mill and mix oxides. cold press and sinter Precipitate oxides or precursors to form granular product Pellets stacked in cladding Pellets stacked in cladding Product remotely packed in cladding Shielded govebox or cell with controlled atmosphere Shielded govebox or cell with controlled atmosphere Shielded cell with controlled atmosphere u/Tru-Metal Fr dip cast from molten-metal bath Metal rod in cladding na-bonded Shielded cell with controlled atmosphere u/Pu or Tru ceramic sol-gel** microsphere pelletization Microspheres packed in cladding (plutonium-uranium solid-solution oxides, carbides, or nitrides) Shielded glovebox/cell with controlled atmosphere u/Pu or Tru oX Vibro-pack*** ceramic pellets remotely packed Shielded glovebox/cell with controlled atmosphere am/cm targets Precipitate oxides or precursors to form granular product Product remotely packed in cladding Shielded cell with controlled atmosphere *Technology readiness is large engineering scale, but current process is not commercially viable due to waste generation and actinide losses **Sol-Gel2 ***Vibro-pack3 teChnoloGy readineSS Plant-scale Plant-scale large eng.-scale* Small eng.- scale Small eng.- scale Small eng.- scale Small lab-scale lab-scale Pilot-scale lab-scale tonium (with each fuel assembly having different plutonium isotopics), different SNF fuel assemblies are processes as a group to obtain the desired end product. u.S. Fuel CyCle In countries like the United States where the reactor fleet is far from uniform and the burnup time and cooling time of the SNF inventory varies widely, the French commercial MOX strategy would be more difficult to implement for the current stock of SNF. If the U.S. is to achieve multi-objective fuel cycle goals, it is necessary to evaluate what is the preferred option that is applicable to the United States, for its current and future SNF inventory. In this context, there is a very large technical and economic difference between recycle of most SNF and all SNF. If economics are a major component of a decision to recycle SNF, the SNF with a high fissile assay will be recycled while SNF with a low fissile assay will be considered wastes. This is similar to the recycle of metals, paper, and other waste streams worldwide. The last funded effort to address closing of the fuel cycle in the U.S. was led by the DOE Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) program. It initially focused on R&D needs and small engineering-scale demonstration of advanced recycling technologies being developed as part of its R&D portfolio. Later, the GNEP strategy moved to deployment of full-scale commercial facilities which resulted in a Funding Opportunity Announcement to industry and funding of four cooperative agreements. 4 Industry provided deployment plans and conceptual designs for a nuclear fuel recycling center and an advanced recycling appendix e: Status of Fuel cycle Technologies 235
eactor. A summary of inputs from industry are given in Table E.5. None of the options proposed by industry separated pure plutonium. The design capabilities specified by the FOA were: p Separating LWR SNF into its reusable and waste components p Reducing the volume, heat load and radiotoxicity of waste requiring geological repository disposal p Generating electricity with an advanced reactor that consumes transuranic elements as part of the fuel In 2008, DOE-NE issued a draft GNEP Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement (PEIS) 5 and a draft Nonproliferation Impact Assessment (NPIA) 6 to assess the potential impact of expanding nuclear power in the U.S. under six fuel cycle alternatives. In addition, the GAO 7 published an evaluation of the extent to which DOE would have addressed the GNEP’s objectives under its original engineering approach and the accelerated approach to build full-scale facilities. GAO recommended that DOE reassess its preference for accelerating approaches to GNEP as using existing technologies may have resulted on lesser benefits than anticipated from advanced technologies in the areas of waste and non-proliferation. Also the NRC 8 published a white paper on issues related to regulating recycling facilities. The GNEP program was terminated in 2008 and replaced with a fuel cycle R&D program. Table E.5 Proposed Industry Deployment Plans 9 International nuclear recycling alliance (Inra) energy Solutions Ge/hitachi General atomics nuClear Fuel reCyClinG Center • COEX process (no pure Pu stream) • Flexible to allow deployment of new technology (Ma actinide when mature) • Capacity based on market for recycle fuel (800- 2500Mt/y) • NUEX process (no pure Pu stream) • Deploys minor actinide separation technology • Capacity 1500MT/y • Co-location of separation and fuel fabrication • Electrometallurgical process (no pure Pu stream) • U/TRU product • Fuel cycle facility to support 3 power blocks of 622 MWe • Co-location of separation and fuel fabrication • UREX+1a process (no pure Pu stream) for LWR recycle • Electrometallurgical process (no pure Pu stream) for high temperature gas-cooled reactor (hTGr) recycle • U/TRU product • Capactiy 2000 MT/y advanCed reCyClinG reaCtor • Re-use U/Pu initially as MOX in LWR and later in Sodium Fast reactor (SFr) • R&D required to make cost competitive and enhance reliability and safety – Based on technology from Joyo, MonJu, Phenix, SuperPhenix • Start with oxide fuel but can use metal • Re-use recycle uranium in CANDU or LWRs • Re-use U/Pu initially as MOX and later U-TRU in advanced recycling reactors • Option for Am/Cm for burning-transmutation in candu or lWr reactors • Re-use recycle uranium in CANDU • Re-use actinides in a PRISM Sodium Fast Reactor • Re-use LWR actinides in a deep-burn HTGR • Re-use deep-burn HTGR actinides in Advanced recycling reactors 236 MIT STudy on The FuTure oF nuclear Fuel cycle
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Other Reports in This Series The Fu
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MIT Nuclear Fuel Cycle Study Adviso
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vi MIT STudy on The FuTure oF nucle
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viii MIT STudy on The FuTure oF nuc
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Study Findings and Recommendations
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Recommendation We recommend that a
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p Innovative nuclear energy applica
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p In line with many of our R&D reco
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The “once through” or open fuel
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have been implemented slowly. This
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Recommendation We recommend that th
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oped policies for specific wastes r
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nuClear Fuel CyCleS The united Stat
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- The primary differences were in t
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Recommendation Integrated system st
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Table 1.2 Summary of R&D Recommenda
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18 MIT STudy on The FuTure oF nucle
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the once-through Fuel Cycle for lig
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tricity costs. Waste management cos
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Figure 2.3 partial recycle of lWr S
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history of the nuclear Fuel Cycle B
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• What is the impact of timing of
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nuclear fuel cycles, the wastes (SN
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Because ore demand is closely coupl
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eStimatinG Future CoStS oF uranium
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Figure 3.3 relative uranium Cost vs
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Figure 3.4 100 year price trend for
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Stockpiling If supply interruption
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CitationS and noteS 1. Uranium 2007
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If SNF is to be shipped, typically
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a policy that maintains fuel cycle
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Dry cask storage is used for short
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For decommissioned sites, our econo
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with its attractiveness of jobs and
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2. The United States should create
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Table 5.1 United States Waste Class
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table 5.3 examples of operational G
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Waste Isolation Pilot Plant The uni
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Successful repository programs are
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designed with limited SNF storage c
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CitationS and noteS 1. A Handbook f
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energy spectrum centered at higher
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light Water reactor Fuel technical
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(fertile-free) to CR=1.0 (break-eve
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license. However, fuel reprocessing
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Figure 6.4 densification Factors as
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As expected, the breeder installed
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Figure 6.8 shows the development of
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Table 6.8 Uranium Cost in $/kg, Sta
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Figure 6.11 location of the tru inv
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SenSitivity analySiS: alternative a
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Fast reactor technical Characterist
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cooled fast reactor (SFR) fueled by
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Summary oF ConCluSionS Among the in
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[hoffman et al., 2006] e.a. hoffman
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This chapter reports the cost of th
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Table 7.1 Input Parameter Assumptio
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Twice-Through Cycle Table 7.3 shows
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Table 7.4 The LCOE for the Fast Rea
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higher cost of disposal of the spen
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110 MIT STudy on The FuTure oF nucl
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power program might be used, as is
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Figure 8.1 Weapons-usability Charac
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inStitutional approaCheS to Fuel Cy
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the iaea additional protocol an Iae
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in technology innovation are likely
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Reprocessing choices Commercial rep
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Table 8.2 Safeguard Technical Objec
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port for nuclear power over the per
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Those Americans who have an opinion
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who are very concerned with global
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p Waste management must be integrat
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options because we do not know toda
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Nuclear Security. Nonproliferation
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There have been major changes in ou
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There are large financial and polic
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Figure 3A.2 shows the results. As c
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Figure A.3 plots Eq (2), where adva
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Again, assuming that q = 0.29, the
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Note that Eq. [7] suggests employin
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Figure 3b.1 Cumulative probability
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Figure 5a.1 decay of radioactivity
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and 241 Am. For the short term, hea
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Repository Engineering All reposito
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epreSentative repoSitory deSiGnS: u
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orehole diSpoSal There are three me
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table 7a.1 list of variables , 1 lc
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The Twice-Through Cycle The LCOE fo
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A proper representation of the chai
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In the Twice-Through Cycle, the pai
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table 7a.2 once-through Fuel Cycle
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above ground storage. However, the
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CitationS and noteS 1. The methodol
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Historically, the interest in thori
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